Roman Emperors - TV Tropes

While the image of The Caligula may linger in the popular imagination, the monarchs of The Roman Empire varied from good and competent to ineffectual to monsters. The early emperors, starting with Augustus, largely kept the Republic's institutions in place, cultivating the image of what we would call a constitutional monarchy. However, all real power lay with the emperor, as he had the personal loyalty of the legions.^note  Later on, during the third century, the emperors dropped the pretense of being Just the First Citizen and openly embraced autocratic rule. Their personal force of bodyguards, the Praetorian Guard, had a large role in both selecting and displacing them.

Oh, and, just in case you did not know, Julius Caesar was not an emperor. He died almost 20 years before Rome became an empire, for that matter. It is true, though, that he was a monarch in all but name by the time he died, and played a critical role in helping Rome transition into an empire.

In general, the Roman Emperors are divided into three sections : The Principate, The Crisis, The Dominate.

A note on names: The names of the emperors are not their actual, full names, and they are not named in any particular pattern after their full names. This is because emperor names would get long and repetitive otherwise. The first Emperor, for example, called himself Gaius Julius Caesar during the competition for power, since he was adopted by the other most famous Roman politician with that name. Augustus was then added as an honorific, in the same way the Germanicus were added to some generals or Scipio Africanus got the Africanus part after battles in Africa. The next guy was Tiberius Claudius Nero when born, Tiberius Julius Caesar when adopted, than Tiberius Caesar Augustus as Emperor. Followed by Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, then Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus/Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus, then Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. Same deal with the rest of the Emperors. So you can see why historical convention is to pick one element from the full name, make it unique for each Emperor, and use that.

Roman Emperors with their own page, in chronological order:

• Augustus
• Tiberius
• Caligula
• Claudius
• Nero
• Vespasian
• Trajan
• Hadrian
• Marcus Aurelius
• Constantine I
• Theodosius I

For emperors of the Eastern Empire after the Western Empire's fall in 476, see Byzantine Empire.

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The Principate (27 BC – 235 AD)

Julio-Claudian dynasty

Augustus (27 BC — 14 AD)

The founder of the Roman Empire and its first emperor. Extremely ruthless and Machiavellian with his political rivals, he was benevolent with the general public. He began the Pax Romana and is widely revered for bringing peace to the Empire.

Tiberius (14 — 37)

The second emperor. Ruled the early Roman Empire competently enough, but was extremely passive-aggressive, insisting that the Senate debate issues of the day and come to the conclusion that he wanted, without his having to tell them what that conclusion was. This alienated him from the Senate, and he suffered many personal tragedies before dying at 78, one of the most popular things he ever did. Probably as a consequence of this, there is a variety of colorful and absurd versions of his death, both natural and murder, which historians cannot decide about.

Caligula (37 — 41)

Tiberius' great-nephew. Insane and tyrannical, although just how much is still hotly debated by historians to this day due to the sheer bizarreness of his anecdotes. It's also debated whether he was clinically sane to begin with. Was extremely hated by the Senate, though popular with the lower classes for his antics. Had a very short reign of four years, before he was killed by a Bodyguard Betrayal.

Claudius (41 — 54)

Caligula's uncle and Tiberius' nephew, already an older man when he became emperor. Is famous for a certain TV series, and for conquering Britain. Surviving his murderous family and eventually obtaining the imperial throne due to his Obfuscating Stupidity, he had a fairly successful reign. Poisoned by his wife (and niece) in 54.

Nero (54 — 68)

Claudius's grand-nephew and adopted son and the last descendant of Augustus' dynasty. Wrongly remembered as a fiddling Rome-burning lunatic, Nero was actually extremely popular among the lower classes during his lifetime. That said, his interest in good governance—if not his competence—did leave something to be desired, and he was perhaps inordinately obsessed with the arts, particularly the theatre (which was considered to be low-grade work; hence his lack of popularity with Rome's elite even in his time), to the point his advisors Seneca and Burrus were for a long time doing the real governing in his place. Was overthrown after a mutiny by the armies in Spain and Gaul. The first emperor who persecuted Christians, he was given a massive Historical Villain Upgrade within a generation of his death.

"The Year of the Four Emperors"

Galba (68 — 69)

The first of the short-lived "four emperors". Former governor of Spain, and made emperor by the legions of Gaul and Spain during their mutiny against Nero.

Otho (69)

The second of the four. Once a close friend of Nero (and the ex-husband of Nero's wife), he enthusiastically supported Galba in hopes of being named Number Two and successor to the elderly and sick emperor. When Galba ended up choosing another he quickly orchestrated a coup with the Praetorian Guard and seized power.

Vitellius (69)

The third (and most consistently reviled) of the four. The governor of Germania, he launched his own rebellion against Galba and Otho. Was infamous for his gluttony and cruelty but initiated several popular and long lasting reforms and had a good administrative track record before the Civil War.

Flavian dynasty

Vespasian (69 — 79)

Former governor of Judea and last of the "four emperors". A very competent administrator and military leader. Defeated the Jewish Revolts and built the Colosseum. According to some, the Messianic Archetype prophecy referred to him. He also left his mark on several modern European languages: because he imposed a tax on the collection of urine,^note  urinals, especially public ones, are known by words derived from his name in several continental languages (e.g. French, Italian and Spanish). A cosmopolitan kind of guy, he granted semi-Roman citizenship to strategic places of the empire, such as several towns across Europe and the whole of Hispania. Vespasian was known for his down-to-earth sensibility and coarse-but-charming sense of humor. He was (allegedly) a man without many pretensions or delusions — he is famously said to have snarked "Oh dear, I fear I am about to become a god" on his deathbed.

Titus (79 — 81)

Vespasian's eldest son, who waged a successful war against the Jews early in his life, which would have long-lasting consequences for Christianity and Judaism. He also organized relief efforts after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius which destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79. Died of a sudden illness two years into his reign. Often seen as (one of) the best emperors by Roman authors, although mostly by virtue of him reigning too shortly to piss any important group off too much.

Domitian (81 — 96)

Vespasian's younger son. Was a very competent but authoritarian ruler, and deeply loathed by the Senate. One of the first emperors with a cult of personality. He was arguably one of the first emperors to openly dispense with any pretense that he was merely sitting at the head of the old republic, ruling instead as an unapologetic autocrat — hence the hatred of the Senate. As most historical sources pertaining Domitian's reign were written by the senatorial class, he was seen as a tyrant and plenty of exaggerations and rumors were made. It was only until recently that he was actually seen as a not just a good emperor, but one of the best of the pre-divided empire. Notably, he created the Limes Germanicus and was one of the few Roman emperors to fix the problems of inflation by increasing the silver purity of coins. Had the tendency to catch and torture flies. He was assassinated by court officials, despite his reign being very popular with the people and the army.

Nerva-Antonine dynasty

Nerva (96 — 98)

An old childless Senator who was made emperor by the Senate after the assassination of Domitian. He was a moderate, merciful ruler who tried to put peace between warring factions, but this only resulted in even more quarrels. When things turned too dire for him, being unpopular with the army and wanting to avoid Galba's mistake, he adopted Trajan, the most successful and popular general of the time, as his successor. Was the first of the "Five Good Emperors."

Trajan (98 — 117)

Widely considered the greatest Roman emperor since Augustus, his conquests expanded the Roman Empire to its peak. Trajan conquered Dacia, or modern Romania (Traian is still a common name there), northwestern Arabia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia, only failing to reach Persia and India as he wished due to his bad health and subsequent death. Born in the town of Italica, near modern Seville in Spain, he was notable for being the first emperor not hailing from Italy (some even claimed he was not even from a Roman family settled in Hispania, but an actual Romanized native clan), and had to skillfully pull strings to attract the Senate to his control. A lover of Greek philosophy and culture, he even formed a male harem which included the next emperor in line, Hadrian, but managed to get the people to overlook this oddity through sheer popularity. Was kind of a humanist, built many impressive buildings and gave Christians a needed break, leading medieval Christian writers such as Dante (yes, that Dante) to place him in Heaven despite Trajan being pagan. Catholic tradition holds that Pope Gregory I raised him from the dead enough to convert him.

Hadrian (117 — 138)

A peacemaker who pulled back from several areas conquered by Trajan, after which he travelled around the empire to inspect the frontiers and built the eponymous wall in Britain to the effect. Like his predecessor, he vehemently supported Greek culture and considered himself intellectual and enlightened, only he had also bizarre whims and a ridiculously short temper. Also like Trajan, had many male favorites and is one of the emperors called gay most often by modern commentators, although he was more likely bisexual — to the chagrin of his wife, who wanted nothing with him. He even had one of them deified after said favorite died young (sources disagree as to whether it was an accident, illness, murder, human sacrifice or some weird combination thereof). He is remembered by Jews for being the Emperor who brutally crushed the Bar Kochba revolt, renaming Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina and generally making things harder for them. His reign was obscure with relatively few historical depictions, one exception being Marguerite Yourcenar's classic Memoirs of Hadrian. Had the most sophisticated succession system of all emperors by allowing Antoninus become emperor when Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus were considered too young to rule.

Antoninus Pius (138 — 161)

Famous for doing nothing at all besides ruling competently for 22 years. Was apparently a very humble, pleasant fellow. In fact, unlike Trajan, Hadrian and other warrior-emperors that would follow him, Antonius Pius probably never left Italy on campaign and fought his wars entirely through intermediaries in the field. Rumour has it that he also sent a delegation to the Han Dynasty in China during his reign (well, him or Marcus Aurelius). Also built a second wall in Britain (after some victories he managed) which was soon abandoned. He received the cognomen Pius because he deified Hadrian in exchange for pardoning some Senators which Hadrian had sentenced to death.

Marcus Aurelius (161 — 180)

Known as the wisest of the emperors. Insisted to rule the empire with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus, the first time the Empire had more than one emperor, until Verus' death. Tried to live up to the ideal of The Philosopher King, and was the author of the well-known Meditations, which are significant for being one of the relatively few complete works of Stoicism we have. They are also one of the most accessible works on Stoicism: as Marcus wrote them as a personal diary relating to his daily struggles to be a good person and a good ruler, they put the Stoic worldview in very concrete terms, and are recommended as a self-help book as much as an academic work on ethics.

A decent man and very competent ruler, though his reign was marked by wars against various barbarians in Germania and The Plague, which may have killed him too. The strongest criticism historians aim at Marcus, though, was his decision to abandon the succession-by-adoption system that had worked so well since Nerva and instead elevate to the purple....

Commodus (176 — 192)

The son of Marcus Aurelius. Started the empire's long decline by being a spendthrift, eccentric and useless ruler. May have gone slightly mad before the end, renaming Rome to "Colony of Commodus" and pretending he was Hercules reborn. He did like to fight in the Colosseum (he was apparently a genuinely good athlete, but all of his fights were, surprise surprise, rigged in his favor), but unlike his fictional portrayal, he was murdered by a slave in his bath after ruling for 16 years. Portrayed famously by Christopher Plummer in The Fall of the Roman Empire and Joaquin Phoenix in Gladiator.

"The Year of the Five Emperors"

Pertinax (193)

An elderly man and accomplished general elected by the Senate, as the only advisor from the reign of Marcus Aurelius to survive the reign of Commodus. Was betrayed and murdered by the Praetorian Guard after he tried to impose some much-needed discipline to their ranks, including downsizing their payment (are we seeing a pattern here?). Septimius Severus deified him after taking the throne, then reaped vengeance upon the Praetorian Guard by executing the members who had carried out the deed, giving the rest of them a tongue-lashing for selling the throne to Julianus (see below), stripping them of their positions and weapons, and finally kicking them out of Rome.

Didius Julianus (193)

Famous only for buying the empire from the Praetorians, who auctioned off the throne after they'd killed Pertinax. Needless to say, this made him very unpopular with everyone else, leading to him being executed after almost everyone had abandoned him.

Pescennius Niger (193)

A general whose troops proclaimed him emperor in Syria, in response to the scandalous auction. Defeated by Septimius Severus in the next year.

Clodius Albinus (193)

A second general whose troops rebelled against Didius buying the throne, this time in Britain. He initially allied himself with Severus, who let him have the title "Caesar". He was eventually backstabbed by his "ally" Severus and killed in 197.

Severan dynasty

Septimius Severus (193 — 211)

Harsh but fair emperor and very competent general, if possibly a bit superstitious. Machiavellian master of the Xanatos Gambit. Since he was a military man who depended only on the army for support, the Senate finally slid into total irrelevance during his reign, while the army grew in turn. The first African-born emperor, he hailed from Leptis Magna in modern Libya and had Punic as his first language, although ironically, he was terrified the first time he saw a black man among his soldiers (he considered the soldier's skin color a bad omen). Expanded the empire even wider than Trajan, although in the process he compromised imperial economy for several generations.

Caracalla (198 — 217)

Severus' eldest son. Expanded the Roman citizenship to all free people throughout the empire. Whatever ruling ability he may have had was totally overwhelmed by his constant violent rage. Famous for his large bathhouse; infamous for having his own brother, co-emperor Geta, murdered just so that he could reign alone, in front of their own mother, and massacring the citizens of Alexandria for criticizing his reign.

Macrinus (217 — 218)

Not a member of the Severan dynasty. The first emperor not to come from the senatorial class, he killed Caracalla before the other way round would've happened. Claiming power when the imperial family isn't dead yet and still maintained legitimacy, Macrinus elevated his son Diadumenianus to the purple and desperately tried to fix the Roman economy, which made him unpopular with the Roman military. It only took a revolt for the Severus' family to take back the throne. Denzel Washington played an In Name Only version of Macrinus in Gladiator II, though it cannot be emphasized enough just how unrelated to the real life figure that fictional depiction really is.

Elagabalus (218 — 222)

Caracalla's cousin, from a prominent Arab family in Syria. Actually called Antoninus while still alive, and nicknamed Elagabalus later on. Characterised as a flamboyant Camp Gay teenager, at a time when Straight Gay or bisexual was the norm (some even claim he may have been Transgender, based on Cassius Dio who used female pronouns in his account), he was so flamboyant that it led to extreme disapproval and his early demise. One famous incident had him throwing a banquet where rose petals fell through the roof via confetti but in such number and volume that some of the revellers were smothered to death.

Some of this reputation was probably exaggerated after his murder by the Praetorian Guard, and related to reactions against his his import and elevation of the Middle-Eastern sun god Elagabal (he was high priest of the cult) to the head of the Roman pantheon. However, some of the commentaries are a bit ''too'' specific and unique to be traditional Roman character assassination. In any case, his reputation made him a hit with the Decadent circles of the 19th and early 20th Century. Antonin Artaud wrote a book on him called, Elagabalus, or the Anarchist Crowned.

Alexander Severus (222 — 235)

Another young cousin of Caracalla and Elagabalus. Rather a Momma's Boy, but was shaping up to be a fair, wise, and competent emperor when he was unceremoniously murdered by his soldiers for trying to negotiate with the Germanic tribes as opposed to fighting them on the battlefield, which involves bribing the barbarians off. His assassination marked the start of the Crisis of the Third Century.

The Crisis of the Third Century (235CE–284CE)

"The Barrack Emperors"

Maximinus Thrax (235 — 238)

The first of the so-called "Barrack Emperors", and also the first ruler who never set a foot into Rome and the first not to hail either from the equestrian or senatorial class. Started as a common barbarian soldier from Thrace, and never learned Latin properly. Also known by the nickname "Cyclops" because of his freakish size - if some records are to be believed, he was 8'5'' (255,6 cm), making him one of the tallest people to ever live.

Philip the Arab (244 — 249)

Oversaw the celebration of the millennium since the foundation of Rome. As his cognomen implies, he was an ethnic Arab from the Syrian borderlands — a fact of which modern Syrians are quite proud; they put him on their 100-pound note. Was very tolerant of Christians and is believed to have privately been one himself, therefore making him the first Christian emperor. Was killed by his successor he appointed in the Balkans.

Decius (249 — 251)

Persecuted the Christians and became infamous for it. This came in the form of requiring every Roman to perform a ritual sacrifice to the gods on the Emperor's behalf, with refusing to do so being seen as treason. While this didn't specifically target Christians, they were at the time the largest group in the Empire to outright reject the existence of the Roman gods and thus became the most notable target.^note  Died in battle against the invading Goths.

Silbannacus (??? — ???)

The ghost Emperor, known to be so obscure that the only proof of his existence are two coins found in the 20th century. The exact time and extent of Silbannacus's rule is not known, but most historians estimate somewhere between 248 to 253 and might have lasted a few short months. His unusual name — which might be from Gallic origins — and the fact that the coins were found in modern-day France might indicate he was a usurper based in Gaul, although some claim that due the quality of his coins indicate that he might have controlled Rome very briefly.

Valerian (253 — 260)

The first emperor to be captured by the enemy. Valerian's reign was easily the lowest point of Rome in the third century. Was taken alive by the Sassanid Persians and allegedly skinned, stuffed and put on display. Other accounts have him being forced to be King Shapur's footstool or killed by being forced to drink molten gold, whilst the more credible ones simply have him stuck in a tower for the rest of his life.

Gallienus (260 — 268)

Valerian's son. Did everything in his power to prevent the total collapse of the Roman Empire. His reign saw the secession of multiple Roman provinces, innumerable amount of usurpers, rampant inflation, constant barbarian attacks and the Sassanid Empire becoming a serious threat to his reign. With nothing more than Italy, the Balkans and North Africa, he reigned 9 years after his father's death.

Claudius Gothicus (268 — 270)

A military man from the Balkans and competent ass-kicker. Defeated and almost exterminated the Goths before dying of illness. Hispania rejoined the Roman Empire after the Gallic Empire suffers from a succession crisis.

Aurelian (270 — 275)

The so-called 'Restorer of the World'. Often credited with single-handedly ending the Crisis of the Third Century, ensuring the Empire's survival for another 200 years or so. When he started his reign, he lost to a barbarian ambush, only to decisively crush them in Italy and Illyria. He tried to fix the currency, which lead to the 'first' mint revolt and was subsequently crushed as well. Aurelian then marched east to the Palmyrene Empire, crushed Zabdas' forces twice under Queen Zenobia, and sacked Palmyra after they attempted to revolt after he briefly left the region. He then marched west and swiftly destroyed and reintegrated the Gallic Empire under Tetricus. Talented, effective and righteous, he was assassinated by several of his officers after a 5-year reign due to a forgery of one of his secretary, who feared Aurelian's punishment for lying on a random issue. Mourned by not just his soldiers, but also his own assassins. His wife Ulpia Severina may have ruled in the interregnum after Aurelian's death, being the only woman to have ever done so.

Tacitus (275 — 276)

Installed by the Senate. Did okay as an emperor but died only a few months later. His brother Florian would acclaim himself as emperor, only to lose against Probus. Not to mistake with Tacitus the historian.

Probus (276 — 282)

Proclaimed emperor over Florian, as most of the troops see Probus as the true heir of Aurelian. Oversaw the Roman withdraw to the Rhine and Danube rivers. Despite a reasonable competent campaign of military restoration, he was deposed and murdered in a revolt begun by disloyal Praetorians, this time for excessive non-military works such as agriculture and swamp draining and hoping that a peaceful empire can come and may soon no longer need soldiers. He was the last emperor to acknowledge the Senate's authority.

The Dominate (284CE — 395CE)

The Tetrarchy

Diocletian (284 — 305)

The man who ended the Crisis of the Third Century. Wanting to avoid usurpation at all cost, he divided the empire's administration into eastern and western halves, each ruled by a senior (Augustus) and junior (Caesar) emperor, creating the system known as the Tetrarchy. Declared himself a God-Emperor, marking the point when the emperor's authority was absolute in theory as well as in fact — this was not so much because he sincerely believed A God Am I, but instead because he was looking to re-instill a sense of authority to the Empire, no longer trusted the senate to have any power and he believed that after multiple civil wars and assassinations the "First Citizen" title no longer commanded the obedience of the masses. Insisted on being referred to as Dominus ("Master"), traditionally the way slaves addressed their masters, with the implication being that all citizens were slaves of the Emperor.^note  History would show this new title failed to have the desired effect. Persecuted Christians and Manichaeans, because he considered them both ideological enemies of the state. After he felt he had done all he wanted to do, he retired to the countryside and became a gardener. Thus, he was the first emperor to give up the throne voluntarily and go into retirement. He lived long enough to see the collapse of the Tetrarchy.

Galerius (305 — 311)

Diocletian's Caesar and eventual successor in the east. Convinced Diocletian that Christianity was a threat. Despite this, he changed his mind shortly before his death and issued the Edict of Serdica, officially ending the persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire.

Maximian (286 — 305), (306 — 310)

A capable soldier and friend of Diocles, he was made Augustus in the west under Diocletian. Has Constantius Chlorus not helped Maximian, he would most likely lose Britannia. Followed all of Diocletian's reforms (including the persecution of Christians) and failed spectacularly. Lead a failed rebellion against Constantine the Great in 310 and was forced to commit suicide.

Constantius Chlorus (306)

Maximian's Caesar. Father of an illegitimate son who would later become Constantine the Great. Best known for his tolerant stance towards Christians in his part of the empire.

Constantinian Dynasty

Constantine I (306 — 337)

First tolerated, then favored Christianity, though also promoting the cult of Sol Invictus. The first Christian emperor of Rome, ultimately being baptized on his deathbed (which has led to suspicions that he was hedging his bets among people unaware that deathbed baptisms were common in the early centuries of Christianity). Moved the empire's capital away from Italy to what would be called Constantinople. A massively capable soldier, both in terms of leadership and in martial skill. Admonished by an advisor on at least one occasion for leading a cavalry charge. He also disbanded the Praetorian Guard, replacing them with the Scholae Palatinae and destroyed the barracks of Castra Praetoria (whose ruins still exist) to much public cheer. Had his capable eldest son executed under false pretenses; upon learning the truth, his wife shared the same fate under suspicions she had a part in the whole thing. This would have terrible repercussions for his dynasty.

Constantine II (337 — 340)

Constantine's first (surviving) son. Squabbled with his brother Constans and died while fighting against him during a failed invasion of Italy, never even meeting his brother in battle.

Constantius II (337 — 361)

Second (surviving) son of Constantine. Credited with masterminding the murder of his male relatives after his father's death. The first emperor to actively discourage pagan practices and promote Christianity.^note 

Julian (360 — 363)

Officially, his name was Flavius Claudius Julianus. He was baptized a Christian, but as a youth, he became interested in Greek and Roman antiquities, philosophy, and history. Eventually, he abjured his Christian upbringing and identified as a pagan. This led him to acquire his famous nicknames, Julian the Philosopher and, more notoriously, Julian the Apostate. He was never exactly considered Emperor material in his youth, and his succession came as a surprise since he was known for being an eccentric, who resurrected the custom of sporting beards (popular when Hadrian introduced it, but considered unfashionable among Roman elites by this point). His early military career was inconsistent to say the least — he won as many battles as he lost, and was only saved from a likely defeat and execution at the hands of Constantius II by the latter's sudden death.

As an Emperor, he reigned for a short while but began a number of large reforms. Most notably, he compiled several state policies to reinstate the traditional Roman pagan religion, including an attempt to make Hellenism into an organized church compared to Christianity, and at Christianity's expense. He also made attempts to shut Christians out of political influence and made promises to the Jewish community in Antioch to resettle them in Jerusalem and even to let them rebuild the temple.

He died in battle (one of 9 emperors to do so) during a poorly conceived invasion of the Persian Empire, being wounded by a spear (he had refused to put on his armor or possibly didn't have time to put on his armor when his camp was attacked) and dying shortly after. Almost all his plans were abandoned after his death. It's possible to compare him to the Egyptian Pharoah Akhenaten who also introduced a state-sponsored religious cult, albeit Akhenaten was a monotheistic radical where Julian was a restorer of the Old Gods. He was the last non-Christian Emperor of Antiquity, and his life and death is often invoked as the Death of the Old Gods, the point at which Hellenism and any attempts to prolong it became failures. Indeed, it was popularly believed that his last words were "You have won, Galilean" (Julian derisively referred to Christians as Galileans as a way to remind them they were originally a minor Jewish sect), and this became much Memetic Mutation during the romantic era, but this is most likely a literary and cultural fantasy, originating from an account by Christian theologian Theodoret.

Despite his brief reign however, Julian is considerably popular as a Historical Domain Character and is probably the most well-represented of the Late Antiquity period. Henrik Ibsen's Emperor and Galilean is one very famous and respected artistic depiction, while more recently, he became well known as a result of Gore Vidal's Julian. Given his role as both the last member of Constantine's dynasty (talk about Irony and Book Ends on the religious front) and the last Pagan Emperor, his life and rule is also one of the most susceptible to What Could Have Been and Alternate History speculation, with many seeing him as the last Emperor with true potential for greatness.

The Elected Non-Dynast

Jovian (363 — 364)

He was elected emperor in very dicey circumstances, and almost entirely by accident after Julian's death. You see, Julian was the Emperor and head of state, and he died in battle at the head of his army when all of them were in enemy territory. Jovian was hastily elected and his first order was getting the army out intact. To do so, he accepted a treaty with the Persians in exchange for safe passage. This made him supremely unpopular immediately because Romans don't quit, they don't surrender to barbarians and they don't back down. In this case, Jovian had no choice — or so he claimed. The Persians naturally extracted a treaty the Romans saw as humiliating.

On his way back to Constantinople, he stopped at Antioch and reversed Julian's policies. He was a Christian himself, and he restored Christianity to pride of place, eliminating the restrictions on Christians teaching the Greek classics that Julian had put, and also ordered the destruction of the Library of Antioch (much to the ire of Antiochians of all religions). He did not promulgate any more anti-pagan policies however. He died under goofy circumstances after only eight months on the throne while still on his way to Constantinople. Despite ruling for a brief period, he was, ironically, the last Roman emperor to have nominal control over the entire undivided empire for his whole reign. Every single one of his successors would rise to the throne with a competing claimant, have to overcome a usurper, or would rule with a colleague.

Valentinian Dynasty

Valentinian I The Great (364-375)

Ruled in the west, with his brother Valens ruling the east. Valentinian restored the empire's flagging fortunes with military victories against various invaders. His contemporaries seem to have respected him as a simple man — a tough soldiering type who would rather be on campaign with his troops than entertaining the nobility or attending to affairs of state. Ammianus Marcellinus calls him "... an able warrior, who hated the well-dressed and the educated." He could be sometimes too tough, with many stories of him executing servants and enemies for trivial reasons. On the religious front, he continued the policies of his predecessor, showing preference for Christianity while tolerating paganism. Died from a stroke brought on by yelling at Germanic diplomats.

Valens (364 — 378)

Famous for losing the Battle of Adrianople, the most disastrous defeat in Rome's history, and getting himself killed. Was a pretty competent emperor like his brother, however.

Gratian (375 — 383)

Succeeded his father Valentinian. Ended the religious toleration of his predecessors, favoring Christianity and suppressing paganism. His hiring of Alan mercenaries earned the ire of the army, leading to his deposition and execution.

Theodosian dynasty

Theodosius I (379 — 395)

Last emperor to rule over east and west (for barely over a year, though). Made Christianity of the Nicene Creed the de jure state religion, although contrary to what was claimed by Christian propaganda and traditional historiography, he did not ban paganism in the process (it would still take centuries for Christianity to slowly overtake it). A notable strategist, fought the Goths to a stalemate with the few troops he could gather, although was unable to win a conclusive victory, leading him to start the custom of trying to assimilate the barbarians rather than fight them. His Pyrrhic Victory in a civil war which won him control of both halves of the Empire, a job he did not even want, may have devastated the Western military so far it couldn't recover. Split the Empire after his death for the final time, the west going to his younger son Honorius and the east going to his elder son Arcadius.

Western Empire (395CE — 476/480CE)

Honorius (395 — 423)

Emperor of the Western Empire. Can actually be considered the worst emperor, both west and east combined. Most notable moment of his reign was the Sack of Rome in 410, which he held some responsibility for, since he had his best general, Stilicho, put to death, along with the families of Gothic soldiers in Roman service. The Goths under Alaric revolted due to their mistreatment and sacked Rome for the first time since 390 BC. Honorius also reportedly lusted after his half-sister Galla Placidia.

Valentinian III (423 — 455)

Nephew of Honorius. Ascended to the throne at the age of four, with his mother Galla Placidia as regent. As an adult, he was more concerned with women and partying than ruling the empire, leaving the general Flavius Aetius to do most of the actual governing. His reign saw the empire lose control of North Africa and most of Iberia and Gaul. Murdered Aetius in a fit of paranoia and was subsequently assassinated by troops loyal to the general.

Petronius Maximus (455)

Seized power after Valentinian's death. Killed in the chaos that surrounded the sack of Rome by the Vandals.

Avitus (455-456)

Seized power in the chaos after Maximus' death. Made efforts to increase support for his regime in other parts of the empire. This angered the Senate, who wanted to prioritize Italy over all else. Overthrown and executed by the military.

Majorian (457 — 461)

General who became emperor after the overthrow of Avitus. Notable for spending nearly all of his reign campaigning to regain lands the Empire had lost and doing a fairly successful job, reconquering most of Gaul and Hispania; his attempt to kick the Vandals out of Africa was thwarted by traitorous soldiers however. Among the late 5th century Emperors his reign is comparatively well-documented, in part due to the newfound stability that his military victories ushered in. His reign saw a series of sweeping legal reforms, which seem to have been well-received by the common people but resented by the aristocracy. Among these were a return of the right for citizens to bear arms, a stipulation against coerced conversions to Christianity, and instating the death penalty as punishment for adultery. His attempts to curb practices putting a strain on the Empire drew the ire of both the aristocracy and magister militum Ricimer who had hoped to use Majorian as a puppet. As a result he was captured, tortured and finally executed by Ricimer with his death arguably ending any hope for the stability or survival of the Western Empire. Has the "honor" of being known as the last Western Roman Emperor to be worth a damn.

Libius Severus (461-465)

One of the most obscure emperors. His reign wasn't recognized in Gaul (which had broken away under Aegidius). Died of natural causes.

Anthemius (467 — 472)

A successful general under Majorian who won great victories over the Huns and Ostrogoths. As Emperor, however, he was not so lucky. A massive(ly expensive) effort to reclaim North Africa from the Vandals ended in failure, and with the Western Empire now nearly bankrupt because of it, Anthemius spent the rest of his reign on the defensive. Eventually, he was betrayed and killed by Ricimer after a few bitter months of civil war. His reign marks the effective end of the Western Empire as a political entity. After his death, the Eastern Roman government no longer conducted diplomacy with it in an official capacity.

Interestingly, Anthemius' reign also features the last major appearance of the Celts in Roman history. He recruited them to fight against the Visigoths, and despite some initial success, they were eventually betrayed by the Praetorian Prefect Arvandus, who Anthemius subsequently exiled.

Olybrius (472)

The only thing of note about this man's reign is that it was during his reign that the strongman Ricimer finally kicked the bucket. The emperor died a couple months later.

Glycerius (472-474)

The new magister militum, Gundobad, appointed this guy to emperor. Unfortunately for Glycerius, the Eastern emperor Zeno refused to recognize him, sending Julius Nepos to depose him.

Julius Nepos (474-475)

Last emperor with Eastern recognition. To his credit, he had some successes (such as forging alliances with Syagrius - Aegidius' successor in Gaul). However, due to long-standing feuds with the Senate, he was overthrown by the military. Nepos continued to rule a rump state in Dalmatia, only to be assassinated in 480 while planning to restore his authority in Italy.

Romulus Augustulus (475 — 476)

A kid who was the puppet of his father Flavius Orestes, who himself had violently supplanted the previous emperor Julius Nepos. When Orestes denied the barbarian troops that had helped him to dethrone Nepos the promised rewards — specifically to grant them a third of Italy for settlement — he was in turn overthrown by the Germanic general Odoacer, who deposed the puppet Romulus (but spared his life) and assumed the title "commander of Italy". Romulus is usually identified as the last emperor in the West, although some insist that Julius Nepos was the last one.^note  After Romulus was deposed, Odoacer sent him to live in Campania, after which he completely drops out of history.

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