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1924: Information and Much More from Answers.com

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1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930

political events

V. I. Lenin dies of sclerosis at Gorky January 21 at age 53. Petrograd is renamed Leningrad, and a triumvirate takes power as Josef Stalin begins a power struggle with Leon Trotsky (see 1918). He makes Mikhail V. Frunze deputy people's commissar for war in March (see 1925). Ruling with Stalin are Lev Borisovich Kamenev (originally Rosenfeld), 40, and Grigori Evseevich Zinoviev (originally Hirsch Apfelbaum), 40 (see 1926).

Britain's first Labour government takes office January 22 under (James) Ramsay MacDonald, 57, who opposed British participation in the war. He recognizes the USSR February 1, Britain signs a commercial treaty in which the Soviet Union gives British goods most-favored nation treatment, Italy recognizes the USSR February 7, France follows suit October 28, but the United States refuses recognition unless Moscow acknowledges its foreign debts and restores alien property, a position stated last year by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes.

Italy annexes Fiume March 9; Benito Mussolini's Fascists use pressure tactics to gain control of the electoral machinery and poll 65 percent of the vote in elections held early in April (see 1923). They conduct terrorist attacks on leftists, socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti, 39, who details their illegal acts of violence in his book The Fascisti Exposed. Matteotti denounces them May 30 in a speech to the Chamber of Deputies. Six Fascist squadristi kidnap him, murder him June 10, and quickly bury his body outside Rome. Most of the non-Fascist third of the chamber secedes June 15 (the Aventine succession), vowing not to return until the government has been cleared of complicity in the Matteotti murder. Demands are made that the Fascist militia be disbanded, Mussolini disavows any connection with the murder, his opponents are unable to keep the public's anger alive, the six suspects in the murder are set free, Mussolini imposes strict press censorship July 1, and he forbids opposition meetings August 3. Prominent Fascist Party members will be tried for the Matteotti murder in 1926, but none will receive more than a light sentence. Italy signs the Treaty of Rapallo September 17.

French general Robert-Georges Nivelle dies at Paris March 22 at age 67, diplomat Paul Cambon at Paris May 29 at age 81; President Millerand resigns June 11 under pressure from Radical Socialist Party leader Edouard Herriot, who says Millerand has tilted to the right. Gaston Doumerge becomes president June 13, Herriot premier June 14.

Britain's Labour government falls November 4 after the general election October 29 has given the Conservatives a great victory, partly through the release October 25 of the so-called Zinoviev letter, allegedly written by Comintern chief Grigori E. Zinoviev and calling on British communists to "have cells in all units of the troops," especially those based in big cities or near munitions plants (it is possibly a forgery). Statesman Edwin Samuel Montagu dies at London November 15 at age 45, having resigned in 1922 over differences with regard to Prime Minister Lloyd George's policy toward Turkey. Stanley Baldwin heads a new government which denounces British treaties with Russia November 21; he will remain prime minister until 1929.

The Ottoman dynasty founded in 1290 by Osman the Conquerer ends March 3 as Turkey's president Mustafa Kemal forces a measure through a protesting assembly that abolishes the Muslim caliphate and banishes all members of the house of Osman (see 1923; 1930). Kemal bans all Kurdish associations and shuts down Kurdish schools and publications, but the Kurds will continue to struggle for their rights.

Albania proclaims herself a republic December 24 after centuries of domination by the Ottoman Turks (see 1912; kingdom, 1928).

Persia's premier Reza Khan Pahlevi establishes government control throughout the country (see 1921). He has subdued the Bakhtiari chiefs of the southwest and the Sheik Khazal of Mohammerah, who has been supported by the British and Anglo-Persian Oil Co. (see 1925).

Moroccan forces under the command of Rif president Abd el-Krim defeat another Spanish army (see 1923). French forces capture Abd el-Krim's supply base in the Wargha Valley, but he begins a drive against the French and by next year will have reached close to Fez (see 1926).

The Wahabi sultan of Nejd Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud conquers the Hejaz, forces the 68-year-old Hashimite king Husein ibn Ali to abdicate in favor of his eldest son Ali ibn Husein, 46, and enters Mecca October 20 (see 1904). His Ikhwan allies want to spread Wahhabism beyond Arabia, they will help him take Medina next year, but when he tries to restrain them they will rebel (see Saudi Arabia, 1926).

South Africa's 10-year-old Nationalist Party wins election and its founder James Hertzog becomes the nation's first Afrikaner prime minister, beginning a regime that will repress dissent (see 1933).

Japan's prime minister Gonnohyoe Yamamoto resigns in February when his cabinet accepts "responsibility" for an attempt on the life of the prince regent (see 1923). A new coalition government comes to power in June under the leadership of former foreign minister Takaaki Kato, now 64. His Constitutional Party (Kenseikai) will win a majority in the Diet next year, enabling Kato to name his own cabinet and begin an era in which universal male suffrage will be enacted, the power of the House of Peers reduced, moderate social legislation introduced, and the size and influence of the military sharply cut.

Geopolitics of the Pacific Ocean (Geopolitik des Pazifischen Ozeans) by Munich-born political geographer Karl (Ernst) Haushofer, 55, adapts a misinterpretation of the late Friedrich Ratzel's 1901 essay "Lebensraum" and uses imperialist ideas put forward in 1904 and 1919 by Halford J. Mackinder. Haushofer traveled to the Orient in 1908, learned Japanese (he already knew French, Polish, and Russian), rose to the rank of general in the Great War, and has studied Japan's expansionist policies; he concludes that Germans and Japanese have a lot in common and that the Japanese military code bushido can be a model for Germany's military (see 1934).

Russia gives up the czar's "ill-gotten gains" at the expense of China, returns her Boxer Rebellion indemnity of 1900 for use in Chinese education, and sends advisers to the 10-day Guomindang (Kuomintang) national congress at Guangzhou (Canton), which ends January 30. At the persuasion of Comintern agent Mikhail Markovich Borodin (originally Mikhail Gruzenberg), 39, Sun Yat-sen admits communists to the Guomindang (see 1911). Northern warlords Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso-lin) and Feng Yu-Xiang (Feng Yü-hsiang) defeat their rival Wu Peifu in a great battle near (Tianjin) Tientsin, occupy Beijing (Peking), establish a military dictatorship, and call Duan Qirui (Tuan Chi'-jui) out of retirement to run the new government and mediate between them. The former emperor Pu yi (P'u-i) sneaks out of the Forbidden City and leaves Beijing (see 1926; Chiang Kai-shek, 1925).

A Mongolian People's Republic modeled on the Soviet political structure is established at Ulan Bator and will continue as such until 1991 (see 1921), but China will not recognize the country's independence until 1946.

Former president Woodrow Wilson dies at Washington February 3 at age 67; his erstwhile opponent Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge (R. Mass.) at Boston November 9 at age 74, having led the successful opposition to the League of Nations favored by Wilson.

President Coolidge wins election in his own right on a platform of "Coolidge Prosperity." Unable to decide between President Wilson's son-in-law William Gibbs McAdoo of California and New York's Roman Catholic governor Alfred E. Smith, the Democrats have nominated New York corporation lawyer John W. Davis on the 103rd ballot at the convention in New York's Madison Square Garden (supporters of Gov. Smith and William G. McAdoo were deadlocked), but Davis wins only 136 electoral votes and 29 percent of the popular vote against 382 electoral votes and 54 percent of the popular vote for Coolidge, who wins 15.7 million votes to Davis's 8.4 million. (Progressive Party candidate Robert M. La Follette gains support from the farm bloc, the Socialist Party, the AFL, and numerous intellectuals but carries only his home state of Wisconsin, winning 13 electoral votes and 17 percent of the popular vote.)

Former Texas governor Miriam A. "Ma" Ferguson runs for governor in her own right and is elected, becoming the first woman to win a state governorship (see 1917). Now 49, she has campaigned on promises to exonerate her husband, weaken the power of the Ku Klux Klan, and bring the state budget under control. Although she will not be able to reduce state spending (Texas governors have little power), she will push through a law forbidding anyone (including a Klan member) to wear a mask in public, get the legislature to grant her husband "legislative amnesty" (the amnesty will later be ruled unconstitutional), and grant executive clemency to 3,500 prisoners.

Liberia rejects Marcus Garvey's plan for resettlement of U.S. blacks, fearing that his motive is to foment revolution (see human rights [Garvey], 1920). Garvey will be convicted next year of fraudulent dealings in the now-bankrupt Black Star Steamship Co. he has founded. President Coolidge will commute his 5-year sentence, but Garvey will be deported to Jamaica in 1927 (see religion [Rastafarians], 1930).

Cuban voters elect Liberal Party candidate Gerardo Machado y Morales, 52, president by an overwhelming majority. A hero of the 1895-1898 war of independence, Machado has succeeded in business; the middle class considers him just the man to restore order to a society that has been disrupted by a slide in sugar prices; and he embarks on a program of public works (but see 1927).

Peru's American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) is founded at Mexico City by intellectual Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, 29, who calls for reforms that would help landless peasants, urban laborers, Indians, and other disadvantaged groups. The military will bar him three times from assuming the presidency; he will spend much of his life in hiding, in exile, or in prison; but his writings on economics and political theory will have wide influence throughout Latin America for the next half century.

Former Venezuelan dictator Cipriano Castro dies in exile at San Juan, Puerto Rico, December 4 at age 66, having spent most of the last 16 years plotting a return to power.

human rights, social justice

Mound Bayou, Mississippi, founder Isaiah Montgomery dies March 6 at age 76, having established numerous black-owned businesses and educational institutions, but although he is credited with having focused attention on the plight of poor blacks in Mississippi, his pragmatic philosophy has drawn criticism from some who have called him a "Judas" in the struggle for civil rights.

The 9-year-old Ku Klux Klan raises $5 million, mostly in the Midwest, and vows to keep America white and Protestant by changing U.S. immigration laws. The Johnson-Reed Immigration Act passed by Congress May 26 bars Africans and Asians almost totally and limits southern and eastern Europeans to 20 percent of the total (see Washington, D.C., march, 1925).

South Africa's new Nationalist Party government inaugurates a "Civilized Labour" policy that excludes blacks from many trades (see 1913). Increased industrialization and poverty have pushed rural whites as well as blacks off the land, jobs are scarce, and the government at Pretoria wants to protect whites from job competition. It will further curtail the voting rights of blacks and bar them from settling permanently in cities (see 1944).

philanthropy

The Kresge Foundation established by chain-store magnate S. S. Kresge with an initial gift of $$1.3 million will receive more than $60 million more by the time Kresge dies in 1966. He tells its trustees simply that income from the money is to be used "to promote the well-being of mankind."

exploration, colonization

French Orientalist Alexandra David-Neel (née David), 56, arrives at the forbidden Tibetan capital of Lhasa in February, becoming the first European woman to enter the city. A onetime opera singer who in 1904 married the chief engineer for French railways in Tunisia, she has had her travels financed by her husband, Philip, at Tunis. Disguised as a beggar and accompanied by a young man whom she has adopted in China's Yan-an (Yunan) Province (she was long ago converted to Buddhism and has learned the Tibetan language), David-Neel has defied cold, hunger, dysentery, bandits, and British-Chinese orders barring Westerners from entering Tibet, but her weight has dropped from 180 pounds to a mere 90, and she leaves Lhasa after 2 months.

Wisconsin-born explorer Delia J. (Julia) Akeley (née Denning), 48, sets out with native porters October 24 to make the first foot safari across the African landmass. Having divorced her first husband at age 27 to marry explorer Carl Akeley, then 38, she divorced Akeley last year (he marries another woman October 26 and will die in November 1926 on an expedition for the American Museum of Natural History to collect mountain gorillas in the Belgian Congo). The white-haired Mrs. Akeley has obtained sponsorship from the Brooklyn Museum of Arts and Sciences but does not know her porters' language and is scarcely able to communicate with them (see 1925).

commerce

Economist John Maynard Keynes takes his colleagues to task in A Treatise on Monetary Policy. They ignore the short run at their peril, he says. "The long run is a misleading guide to current affairs. In the long run we are all dead. Economists set themselves too easy, too useless a task if in the tempestuous seasons they can only tell us that when the storm is long past the sea is flat again."

International Business Machines Corp. (IBM) is reorganized March 5 by upstate New York-born former National Cash Register executive Thomas J. Watson, now 40, who has headed the Elmira, N.Y.-based Computer-Tabulating-Recording Co. (C-T-R) since 1915, increased sales of its various time clocks and punched-card tabulating machines, and merges it with a firm that has been using the IBM name, which he adopts as the name for the new company (see 1911).

German financial "kaiser" Hugo Stinnes dies at Berlin April 10 at age 54 as inflation continues to wreak havoc (he has had control of the banks, coal mines, steel mills, and shipping lines, his more than 60 newspapers have attacked the policies of the Weimar Republic and promoted his own political ideas, but he has been unable to stop prices from escalating). The ruinous inflation ends September 1 as Berlin issues a new Reichsmark, imposes strict new taxes, and makes a sharp cut in the availability of credit for business expansion. The Reichsmark is backed 30 percent by gold and its value is set at 1 billion old marks, which cease to be legal tender and are withdrawn from circulation under terms of a plan devised by a commission headed by Chicago banker Charles Gates Dawes, 59. The Dawes Plan reorganizes the Reichsbank under Allied supervision, sets World War reparations to be paid by Germany, and provides for an Allied loan to Germany of 800 million gold marks, $110 million of it to come from the United States.

A Revenue Act approved by Congress June 2 reduces federal estate and income taxes while abolishing most excise taxes.

Former Knights of Labor leader Terence V. Powderly dies at Washington, D.C., June 24 at age 75; financier August Belmont II of blood poisoning in his Park Avenue, New York, apartment December 11 at age 71; American Federation of Labor (AFL) founder Samuel Gompers at San Antonio, Texas, December 13 at age 74.

Wall Street's Dow Jones Industrial Average closes December 31 at 120.51, up from 95.52 at the end of 1923.

retail, trade

Barney's opens on New York's Seventh Avenue at 17th Street, where it will continue for 74 years. Merchant Barney Pressman, 28, started his career by pressing pants at 3¢ per pair in his father's Elizabeth Street clothing store on the Lower East Side. His son Fred, born this year, will turn the discount store into America's largest menswear retailer (see 1977).

Saks Fifth Avenue opens September 15 just south of St. Patrick's Cathedral with window displays featuring $1,000 raccoon coats, chauffeurs' livery, and a $3,000 pigskin trunk. New York merchant Bernard F. Gimbel, 39, and Horace Saks, 42, merged their stores at Greeley Square last year. Their new store is the first large specialty shop north of 42nd Street, and it sells out its stock of silver pocket flasks the first day.

New York's R. H. Macy Co. opens a new building west of its existing store on Herald Square. Two further additions in 1928 and 1931 will make Macy's the world's largest department store under one roof, with more than 2 million square feet of floor space (see 1901; 1912). The first Macy's Thanksgiving Day parade moves two miles from Central Park West down Broadway to Herald Square, beginning an annual promotion event designed to boost Christmas sales.

energy

Ethyl Corp.'s Thomas Midgley Jr. and C. F. Kettering of General Motors make a deal with Dow Chemical to obtain 100,000 pounds of ethylene dibromide per month at 58¢/lb. Ethyl combines the chemical with tetraethyl lead to make a gasoline additive that eliminates engine knock (see 1923).

Germany's I. G. Farben starts a synthetic gasoline development program. Executive chemist Carl Bosch has been advised by his experts that rising gasoline prices will make gasoline derived from coal competitive with that derived from petroleum. Germany has no domestic sources of petroleum and lacks foreign exchange but does have abundant coal reserves and faces an energy crisis. Now 50, Bosch is impressed by forecasts that world petroleum reserves will be exhausted within a few decades (see 1916); an industrial chemist who has adapted the Haber process of 1908 to commercial ammonia production, he predicts that synthetic gasoline will soon undersell gasoline produced from petroleum.

transportation

Imperial Airways is organized at London March 31 and begins operations April 26, inaugurating London-Paris service with a de Havilland DH34 (see 1927).

The first round-the-world flights are completed September 28 as two plywood, spruce, and linen canvas World Cruisers arrive in California after a 30,000-mile, 5-month journey (15 flying days). A third U.S. pilot crashed early on in Alaska (but survived) and a fourth had engine trouble; British, French, and Portuguese pilots have all come to grief. Donald W. Douglas designed and built the biplanes and powered them with 12-cylinder Liberty engines (see 1920); he wins a U.S. Army order for 50 XO observation planes (see DC-2, 1931).

The ZR-3 dirigible built by Hugo Eckener at Friedrichshafen crosses the Atlantic in October under Eckener's command (see 1918). He has constructed the airship for the United States as a war-reparations payment, and it will be renamed the Los Angeles (seeGraf Zeppelin, 1928).

The first U.S. diesel electric locomotive goes into service for the Central Railroad of New Jersey in December (see Sweden, 1913). The 300-horsepower Ingersoll-Rand engine uses General Electric electrical components and is installed in a locomotive built by American Locomotive of Schenectady, N.Y. It will remain in service until 1957 (see 1941).

The first Chrysler motorcar is introduced January 5 by Maxwell Motor Co. (see 1923); it has four-wheel hydraulic brakes, a high-compression 68-horsepower engine that develops more power cubic inch than a luxury Duesenberg, and has other engineering advances, including an instrument panel behind glass, that give the motorist more excitement for $1,500 than he can get from a $5,000 car (see 1925).

Ford produces nearly 2 million Model T motorcars for the second year in a row and drops the price of a new touring car to a low of $290, making a durable automobile available to Americans even of modest means. More than half the cars in the world are Model T Fords (see 1926; Model A, 1927).

Oakland automobiles made by General Motors become the first cars finished with DuPont Duco paints, which cut days off the time required to paint a car (see 1909; Du Pont, 1915; Pontiac, 1926).

Tire maker Harvey S. Firestone acquires a 2,000-acre Liberian rubber plantation (see 1908; 1926).

New York's Bronx-Whitestone, Cross-Bay, Henry Hudson, Throgs Neck, Triborough, and Verrazano bridges will be built in the next 44 years by Robert Moses, 35, who is named president of the Long Island State Park Commission by Governor Alfred E. Smith. Moses will also build the Bruckner, Clearview, Brooklyn-Queens, Cross-Bronx, Gowanus, Long Island, Major Deegan, Prospect, Nassau, Sheridan, Staten Island, Throgs Neck, Van Wyck, and Whitestone expressways, the Harlem River Drive and West Side Highway, and the Belt, Cross Island, Cross-County, Grand Central, Interborough, Northern State, Meadowbrook, Laurelton, Sunken Meadow, Mosholu, and Hutchinson River parkways, but he will build with no master plan and his projects will favor bridges over tunnels and private automobile travel at the expense of mass transit.

technology

Artificial silk (rayon) inventor Hilaire Bernigaud, comte de Chardonnet, dies at Paris March 12 at age 84.

Celanese Corp. of America has its beginnings in the American Cellulose & Chemical Manufacturing Co. founded at Cumberland, Maryland, by Swiss-born chemist Camille (Edward) Dreyfus, 46, who worked with his brother Henri beginning in 1910 to produce cellulose acetate lacquers and plastic film as a replacement for flammable cellulose nitrate photographic film and came up with good-quality acetate film yarns in 1913 after 20,000 experiments. Reacting purified wood pulp or cotton linters with acetic anhydrase, the Dreyfus brothers have created a primary solution that can be hydrolized into a white, floculent mass, washed clean of oil, and formed into a flake that can be dissolved in acetone to produce a spinning solution (see American Viscose, 1910; nylon, 1935).

science

Australian-born anatomist Raymond (Arthur) Dart, 31, revolutionizes the study of human origins by discovering the first early human fossil to be found in Africa, but most evolutionists continue to believe that humans developed in Asia (see Peking Man, 1927; Mary Leakey, 1948).

medicine

Indiana-born physician George F. (Frederick) Dick, 43, and his wife Gladys (née Henry), 24, isolate the hemolytic streptococcus bacterium that incites scarlet fever. They prepare a toxin for immunization (Dick toxin), devise a method for preventing the disease by toxin-antitoxin injection, and by next year will devise the Dick skin test for susceptibility to the disease.

Argentine physiologist Bernardo A. (Alberto) Houssay, 37, demonstrates that the pituitary gland is involved in human sugar breakdown, not just the pancreas (see Banting, Best, 1922).

Hormone co-discoverer Sir William M. Bayliss dies at London August 27 at age 64.

education

Fisk University students stage a strike against the practices of the school's president Fayette Avery McKenzie, saying that graduates are not prepared for careers that would make them competitive with whites (see 1915). Half the student body leaves, and Fisk graduate W. E. B. Du Bois gives a commencement address declaring that discipline at the school is choking freedom (see 1925).

Duke University gets its name and begins the rise that will make it a great seat of learning. American Tobacco Co. president James Buchanan "Buck" Duke announces that he will donate $40 million if Trinity School at Durham, N.C., will change its name, the offer is widely criticized, but Duke adds another $7 million October 1 and dies of pernicious anemia and pneumonia at New York 9 days later at age 68; he has made earlier gifts to the 86-year-old school, and Trinity College becomes Duke University.

The Brookings Institution is founded under the name Robert Brookings Graduate School of Economics and Government with a gift from St. Louis philanthropist Robert S. (Somers) Brookings, 74, who has made a fortune in woodenware.

communications, media

Australia's radio stations 3AR and 3LO begin broadcasting January 26 (see 1923). Only 1,400 listeners take out sealed-set licenses in the first 6 months of the year (it is too easy to build one's own set or take a set purchased earlier and modify it to receive more than one station); broadcasting from Melbourne begins October 13.

Radio España begins broadcasting from Madrid September 10 (see 1923).

U.S. radio set ownership reaches 3 million, but most listeners use crystal sets with earphones to pick up signals from the growing number of radio stations.

The New York Herald Tribune is created by a merger March 15. Tribune editor Ogden Mills Reid, now 42, has purchased the 89-year-old Herald and its Paris edition for $5 million in order to kill it, combines it with his own 83-year old paper, and heads the new daily, which begins publication March 18 and will give the New York Times healthy competition until 1966.

The New York Daily Mirror begins publication June 24 as a tabloid competitor of the 5-year-old Daily News. Its publisher is William Randolph Hearst, who has bought papers at Rochester, Syracuse, Los Angeles, Oakland, and Washington, D.C.; he has tried putting a tabloid section in his New York American but the experiment did not work. San Francisco-born editor John Russel Hastings, 50, runs the Mirror, which announces that it will be 90 percent entertainment and 10 percent news.

Denver Post co-publisher Harry H. Tannen dies of cancer at Denver July 19 at age 68.

"Little Orphan Annie" appears October 5 in the New York Daily News, which in 5 years has become the most widely-read paper in America, with a circulation of 750,000. Chicago Tribune staff cartoonist Harold Lincoln Gray, 30, who has helped Sidney Smith draw "The Gumps," has developed a blank-eyed, 12-year-old character together with her dog Sandy, her guardian Oliver "Daddy" Warbucks, and his manservant Punjab. The comic strip will campaign against communism, blind liberalism, and other threats to free enterprise and rugged individualism, continuing beyond Gray's death in 1968.

The American Mercury magazine begins publication at New York under the direction of former Smart Set magazine editors H. L. Mencken and George Jean Nathan (see 1914). Nathan will continue until 1930 while Mencken's essays assail Prohibition, Puritanism, and the American middle class that he savages as the "booboisie."

Britain's Allied Newspapers Ltd. is founded by William E. Berry (later Viscount Camrose), his brother J. Gomer (later Viscount Kemsley), and Sir Edward Iliffe to control a number of provincial papers (seeSunday Times, 1915).

A crossword puzzle published November 2 in London's Sunday Express is the first to appear in a British newspaper (see 1913; Times, 1930).

New York World editor Margaret Petheridge Farrar, 27, and two colleagues create the world's first crossword-puzzle book. Published by Simon & Schuster, it has sales of 400,000 its first year (see 1942).

Perfume maker François Coty acquires the 70-year-old Paris daily Le Figaro. Now 48, Coty has made himself one of France's richest men (see everyday life, 1907); he will will make the paper a vehicle for his pro-fascist views and establish two other dailies in 1928, subsidizing them with money from his perfume business and selling them at half the competition's price to push his views against socialism and communism.

literature

Nonfiction: Manifesto of Surrealism (Manifeste de surréalisme) by French poet-essayist André Breton, 28, who has been a member of the Dadaist movement and whose October Manifesto inaugurates a new movement (see Apollinaire, 1917). Breton becomes editor of La Revolution Surréaliste; Judgment and Reasoning in the Child (Le Jugement et la raisonnement chez l'enfant) by Jean Piaget; "Goethe's Effective Affinities" ("Goethes Wahlverwandtschaften") by Berlin critic and aesthetician Walter Benjamin, 32; Machiavellism: The Doctrine of Raison d'Etat and Its Place in Modern History (Idee der Staatsräson in der neuren Geschichte) by historian Friedrich Meinecke, who questions whether the sovereign state is truly the embodiment of the highest ethical values and suggests that breaking moral laws can be justified on the basis of political necessity; The Commonweal by historian Herbert Albert Laurens Fisher is a defense of capitalism and a statement of the Liberal idea of individual responsiblity to the state; Virginia—A Gentle Dominion by Lynchburg-born Richmond News Leader editor and historian Douglas Southall Freeman, 38; With Lawrence in Arabia by Ohio-born journalist Lowell (Jackson) Thomas, 32, brings prominence to English archaeologist-soldier T. E. Lawrence, who has refused a knighthood and the Victoria Cross for his wartime exploits in the Arabian desert (see politics, 1916; 1926); Comedy and Conscience after the Restoration by Tennessee-born New York college teacher Joseph Wood Krutch, 30, who received his Ph.D. last year from Columbia (the book was his doctoral dissertation. He will be drama critic for the Nation magazine until 1952); The Garden of Folly by Stephen Leacock includes "Letters to the New Rulers of the World."

Psychologist-author Granville S. Hall dies at Worcester, Mass., April 24 at age 80.

Fiction: The Magic Mountain (Der Zauberberg) by Thomas Mann, who uses the setting of a sanatorium to explore the sickness of contemporary European civilization; A Passage to India by E. M. Forster, who has produced no new novel since 1910; Precious Bane by Mary Webb; The Green Hat by Bulgarian-born Armenian-English novelist Michael Arlen (originally Dikran Kuyumijian), 30; Sard Harker by John Masefield; Some Do Not by Ford Madox Ford; The Black Soul by Irish novelist-short story writer Liam O'Flaherty, 28, who has settled in England after wandering about the world after serving in the British Army during the Great War; The Ship Sails On (Skibet gaar videre) by Nordahl Grieg; The Fleshly and the Meditative Man (L'homme de chair et l'homme reflet) by French (Breton) novelist-poet Max Jacob, 48; "Salt," "The Letter," "My First Goose," and other short stories by Russian author Isaak Emmanuilovich Babel, 30, in the magazine Left; Billy Budd by the late Herman Melville, who finished the work just before his death in 1891 (it has been discovered by the author's granddaughter Eleanor [Mrs. Thomas Metcalf], 41); The Green Bay Tree by Ohio-born novelist Louis Bromfield, 27; So Big by Michigan-born novelist Edna Ferber, 37; The Crooked Mile by Utah-born novelist Bernard (Augustine) De Voto, 27; Brothers of No Kin and Other Stories by Pennsylvania-born author Conrad Richter, 33; The Constant Nymph by English novelist Margaret Kennedy, 28, who was trained as an historian; Night Fears and Other Stories by English writer L. P. (Leslie Poles) Hartley, 28.

Novelist Marie Corelli dies at Stratford-upon-Avon April 21 at age 68, having lived in the town since 1901 and stoutly resisted its modernization; Franz Kafka dies of tuberculosis in a sanatorium at Klosterneuburg, Austria, June 3 at age 40; Joseph Conrad at Bishopsburne, England, August 3 at age 66; novelist-critic Anatole France at La Béchellerie, near Tours, October 13 at age 80; Gene Stratton Porter following an auto accident at Los Angeles December 6 at age 61.

Poetry: Veinte poemas de amor y una cancion des esperada by Chilean poet Pablo Neruda (Neftali Ricardo Reyes), 20, who won recognition last year with his Crepusculazio and will go abroad in 1927 as Chilean consul first at Rangoon, then in Java, then at Barcelona; Tamar and Other Poems by California poet Robinson Jeffers, 37, who has built a high rock tower at Carmel Bay and lived in seclusion with his wife since the outbreak of war in 1914; The Man Who Died Twice (novel in verse) by Edwin Arlington Robinson; Chills and Fever by John Crowe Ransom; The Happy Marriage by Illinois-born poet Archibald MacLeish, 32, who lives as an expatriate at Paris; The Swain (Molodets) by Marina Tsvetaeva.

Juvenile: Bambi by Austrian critic-magazine writer Felix Salten (Siegmund Salzmann), 57, whose anthropomorphic tale of a fawn will be translated into English by Philadelphia-born magazine editor (and Communist Party member) Whittaker (originally Jay Vivian) Chambers, now 23, who will soon adopt his mother's maiden name, Whittaker; When We Were Very Young by A. A. Milne, who has written the verses to amuse his 4-year-old son Christopher Robin, illustrations by Ernest H. Shepard; Schoolgirl Kitty and Captain Peggy by Angela Brazil.

Author Edith Nesbit dies at New Romney, Kent, May 4 at age 65; Harriet Mulford Stone Lothrop in California August 2 at age 80 (famed for her Five Little Peppers books, she has had dozens of other works published, all under the pen name Margaret Sidney).

art

Painting: Sugar Bowl and Still Life with Guitar by Georges Braque; Still Life with a Cake by Pablo Picasso; Daughter Ida at the Window and The Birthday by Marc Chagall; Catalan Landscape by Joan Miró; Venice by Oskar Kokoschka; Beauty Contest by Florine Stettheimer; The Dempsey-Firpo Fight by George Bellows (see sports, 1923). Post-impressionist watercolorist Maurice Prendergast dies at New York February 1 at age 64; art collector Isabella Stewart Gardner at Boston July 17 at age 84, leaving her museum to the city on condition that the collection be maintained exactly as she arranged it, with nothing added or removed.

Lithograph: Never Again War! by Käthe Kollwitz.

Yaddo opens at Saratoga Springs as a retreat for artists and writers according to a plan devised in 1900 by the late banker Spencer Trask, who was killed in a train accident in 1909. Endowed by his widow, Katrina Trask (née Nichols), now 71, the 400-acre estate has a 55-room 19th-century mansion and other buildings to serve the year-round establishment headed initially by Elizabeth Ames, 39. By the end of the century it will have been used by more than 5,500 visual artists, writers, and composers, who will stay at the retreat for periods of between 2 weeks and 2 months.

photography

Eastman Kodak replaces its highly flammable celluloid film with a photographic film made of cellulose acetate (see Reichenbach, Goodwin, 1889; Kodachrome, 1935; acetate movie film, 1951).

theater, film

Theater: Hell Bent for Heaven by North Carolina-born playwright Hatcher Hughes, 42, 1/4 at New York's Klaw Theater, with George Abbott, John Hamilton, Los Angeles-born actor Glenn Anders, 33, 122 perfs.; The Show-Off by Pennsylvania-born actor-turned-playwright George Kelly, 37, 2/4 at New York's Playhouse Theater, with Louis John Bartels, Lee Tracy, 575 perfs.; Beggar on Horseback by George S. Kaufman and Marc Connelly 2/12 at New York's Broadhurst Theater, with Osgood Perkins, Roland Young, Colorado Springs-born actresss Spring Byington, 37, Mount Vernon, N.Y.-born actress Kay Johnson, 19, 164 perfs.; Fata Morgana by Hungarian-born playwright Ernest Vajda, 36, 3/3 at New York's Garrick Theater, with Georgia-born actor Sterling Holloway, 19, Massachusetts-born actress Josephine Hull (née Sherwood), 38, Helen Westley, 240 perfs.; Juno and the Paycock by Sean O'Casey 3/3 at Dublin's Abbey Theatre. O'Casey has been supporting himself with pick and shovel on a road gang; The Outsider by Dorothy Brandon 3/3 at New York's 49th Street Theater, with Katharine Cornell, Florence Edney, English-born actor Lionel Atwill, 39, 104 perfs.; The Farmer's Wife by English novelist-playwright Eden Phillpotts, 61, 3/11 at London's Court Theatre, with Cedric Hardwicke, 31, Evelyn Hope, Melville Cooper, Maud Gill, 1,329 perfs; Welded by Eugene O'Neill 3/17 at New York's 39th Street Theater, 24 perfs.; All God's Chillun Got Wings by O'Neill 5/15 at New York's Provincetown Playhouse, with former Rutgers football star Paul (Bustill) Robeson, 26, playing a black man married to a white woman (Mary Blair). The Ku Klux Klan threatens reprisals, the Salvation Army and the Society for the Suppression of Vice warn that "such a play might easily lead to racial riots or disorder," but there are no disturbances; Each in His Own Way (Ciaseuno a suo modo) by Luigi Pirandello 5/22 at Milan's Teatro dei Filodramatici; The Best People by David Gray and Avery Hopwood 8/19 at New York's Lyceum Theater, with Toronto-born actor James Rennie, 34, 143 perfs.; Pigs by Anne Morrison and Urbana, Ill.-born playwright Patterson McNutt, 27, 9/1 at New York's Little Theater, with Alan Bunce, Lancashire-born actor Wallace Ford, 26, 312 perfs.; The Haunted House by Owen Davis 9/2 at George M. Cohan's Theater, New York, with Wallace Eddinger, New York-born actor Dudley Clements, 25, 103 perfs.; What Price Glory? by New York playwrights Laurence Stallings, 28, and Maxwell Anderson, 35, 9/3 at New York's Plymouth Theater, with Louis Wolheim as Captain Flagg, Brian Donlevy as Corporal Gowdy, Luis Alberni, 299 perfs.; The Flood (Der Sündflut) by Ernst Barlach 9/27 at Stuttgart; The Saint by Mississippi-born playwright-critic-painter Stark Young, 43, 10/11 at the Greenwich Village Theater, with Leo Carillo and extras who include New York-born Sorbonne graduate Harold (Edgar) Clurman, 22, who will become a major director, producer, and drama critic, 17 perfs. (Young gives up his job as drama critic of the New Republic but will continue with Theatre Arts magazine as associate editor until 1940); Desire Under the Elms by O'Neill 11/11 at New York's Greenwich Village Theater, with Walter Huston, Walter Abel, 208 perfs. (the play moves uptown after 2 months); Silence by Max Marcin 11/12 at New York's National Theater, with H. Cooper Cliffe, Philip Lord, John Wray, 199 perfs.; They Knew What They Wanted by Oakland, Calif.,-born playwright Sidney (Coe) Howard, 33, 11/24 at New York's Garrick Theater, with Pauline Lord, Glenn Anders, Richard Bennett, Brooklyn-born Sanford Meisner, 19, 414 perfs.; The Man with a Load of Mischief by English playwright Ashley Dukes, 39, 12/7 at London's New Theatre, with Leon Quartermaine, Laura Cowle, 2 perfs.; The Vortex by Noël Coward 12/16 at London's Royalty Theatre, with Coward, Australian actress May Robson, 56, as an older woman with a much younger lover and a drug-addicted son (Coward has persuaded the Lord Chancellor that it is a morality play, letters to newspaper editors denounce him, and he is delighted to have his first hit), 224 perfs.; The Youngest by Philip Barry 12/22 at New York's Gaiety Theater, with Henry Hull, Effie Shannon, Genevieve Tobin, Veree Teasdale, Elmira, N.Y.-born actor Jay Fassett, 24, 104 perfs.

The New York Times publishes a caricature January 29 of a Scottish music-hall star by local poster artist Al Hirschfeld, 20, who has received a telegram reading, "WOULD LIKE A DRAWING OF A HARRY LAUDER TWO COLS DEEP DELIVERY NO LATER THAN TUESDAY. SAM ZOLOTOW NEW YORK TIMES." Hirschfeld began his career as an office boy at Goldwyn Pictures in 1920, became art director at Selznick Pictures 2 years ago, and will now rent a studio in West 42nd Street, sharing it with Mexican artist Miguel Covarrubias. His eloquent theatrical cartoons will continue for more than 75 years (see Nina, 1943).

Playwright-novelist-poet George Cram Cook dies at Delphi January 14 at age 50, having moved to Greece in 1921 to live among rural people because he despised the cultural life of America; Eleanora Duse dies of pneumonia at Pittsburgh's Hotel Schenley April 21 at age 65, having inspired the slang word doozy to mean "a stunning example, a wow"; Lotta Crabtree dies September 25 at age 76 in the Boston hotel she has owned since 1909. She has bequeathed most of her $3,117,610 estate to veterans of the Great War and their families; playwright-novelist Herman Heijermans dies at Zandoort November 23 at age 59.

Film: Erich von Stroheim's Greed with Gibson Gowland as McTeague, Kansas-born actress ZaSu Pitts, 26, Jean Hersholt. Based on the 1899 Frank Norris novel McTeague, the film runs for 9½ hours at its preview January 12, von Stroheim agrees to cut it, he shortens it to 4 hours, but M-G-M executives make further cuts and when it premieres at New York December 24 it runs for 140 minutes.

Other films: Fritz Lang's Die Niebelungen (Kriemheld's Revenge) with Paul Richter, Margerite Schon; Buster Keaton's Sherlock, Jr. with Keaton. Also: D. W. Griffith's America with Neil Hamilton, Carol Dempster; Griffith's Isn't Life Wonderful with Carol Dempster; Fernand Léger's Ballet Mécanique; Henry Beaumont's Beau Brummel with John Barrymore, Mary Astor (Lucille Langhanke), 18; Jean Renoir's La Fille de l'Eau; Mauritz Stiller's Gosta Berling's Saga with Swedish actress Greta Garbo (Greta Lovisa Gustaffson), 19; Victor Seastrom's He Who Gets Slapped with Lon Chaney, (Edith) Norma Shearer, 22, John Gilbert; John Ford's The Iron Horse with George O'Brien, Madge Bellamy; Hal Roach's Jubilo Jr. with Our Gang (Mary Kornman, Mickey Daniels, Joe Cobb, Farina, Jackie Condon); F. W. Murnau's The Last Laugh with Swiss-born actor Emil Jannings (originally Theodor Friedrich Emil Janenz), 41; James Cruze's Merton of the Movies with Glenn Hunter; Sidney Olcott's Monsieur Beaucaire with Rudolph Valentino; Buster Keaton and Donald Crisp's The Navigator with Keaton; Herbert Brenon's Peter Pan with Trenton, N.J.-born actress Betty Bronson, 17; Henry King's Romola with Lillian and Dorothy Gish, Pittsburgh-born actor William (Horatio) Powell, 32, English-born actor Ronald Colman, 33; Frank Lloyd's The Sea Hawk with Chicago-born actor Milton Sills, 42; Latvian-born director Sergei (Mikhailovich) Eisenstein's Strike; Raoul Walsh's The Thief of Baghdad with Douglas Fairbanks, sets by New Haven, Conn.-born designer William Cameron Menzies, 30; Paul Leni's Waxworks with Conrad Veidt as Haroun-al-Raschid, Werner Kraus as Jack the Ripper.

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (M-G-M) is founded April 17 by vaudeville theater magnate and Metro Pictures head Marcus Loew, now 54, who has absorbed Louis B. Mayer Pictures Corp. and buys Goldwyn Pictures Corp., from which Samuel Goldwyn has resigned (see 1917). Goldwyn will control Samuel Goldwyn, Inc. from 1926 to 1941 and continue to produce films through the 1950s, winning fame as a producer and notoriety for such expressions as "Include me out" and "In two words, impossible."

Columbia Pictures is founded by former trolley conductor and song plugger Harry Cohn, 33, who 6 years ago joined Universal Pictures as secretary to Carl Laemmle, learned the rudiments of picture making, and 2 years later formed CBS Sales Co., which he has reorganized. The New York-born Cohn keeps a cigar covered with a colored handkerchief in his breast pocket, a picture of Benito Mussolini on his wall, and a telephone always nearby, uses intimidation to keep his employees loyal ("He who eats my bread sings my song," he says), and will be widely detested in the film industry.

music

Music Corp. of America (MCA) is founded by Chicago physician Jules C. Stein, 28, who has just published a definitive work on telescopic spectacles after doing postgraduate work at Vienna. Stein played violin and saxophone in his own dance band to help pay his way through medical school; he has booked dance bands into hotels, nightclubs, and summer resorts on a commission basis; and he starts a company that will innovate the one-night stand at a time when most bookings have been for the season. Beginning with Guy Lombardo and His Royal Canadians, Stein will sign up most of the big bands before moving on to sign variety acts, radio talent, and movie stars to exclusive MCA contracts.

Opera: Ertvartung (Expectation) 6/6 at Prague's Neues Deutsches Theater, an expressionistic one-character mimodrama with music by Arnold Schoenberg; Hugh the Drover, or Love in the Stocks 7/4 at His Majesty's Theatre, London, with music by Ralph Vaughan Williams; Die glückliche Hand 10/14 at Vienna's Volksoper, with music by Schoenberg.

Pianist-composer Ferruccio Busoni dies at Berlin July 27 at age 58, leaving his opera Doktor Faust to be completed by his pupil Philipp Jarnach, 32 (it will have its premier next year at Dresden); composer Giacomo Puccini dies of throat cancer at a Brussels clinic November 29 at age 65 (a diabetic and notorious womanizer who has walked with a limp since a 1903 motorcar accident in which his first wife was fatally injured, he has been a heavy smoker for 50 years or more).

Ballet: Les Biches 1/6 at the Théâtre de Monte Carlo, with Polish dancer Leon Woizikovsky (originally Wojcikowski), 24, and other members of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, music by French composer Francis Poulenc, 24, choreography by Bronislava Nijinska; Les Fâcheux 1/19 at the Théâtre de Monte Carlo, with Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, music by French composer Georges Auric, 24, libretto by Moscow-born writer Boris Kochno, 20; Schlagobers 5/9 at the Vienna State Opera with Tilly Losch, 19, music by Richard Strauss; Mercure ("poses plastiques") 6/14 at the Théâtre de la Cigale, Paris, with music by Erik Satie, sets and curtains by Pablo Picasso that overshadow Leonide Massine's choreography; Le Train Bleu 6/20 at the Théâtre des Champs-Elysées, Paris, with Bronislava Nijinska and other members of the Ballets Russes, music by Darius Milhaud, choreography by Nijinska, libretto by Jean Cocteau, curtain by Pablo Picasso, costumes by Coco Chanel.

George Balanchine quits the Soviet State Dancers while on tour in Paris, joins Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, changes his name from Georgi Meilitonovitch, and at age 20 begins a career that will make him the world's leading choreographer (see 1932).

Russian dancer-choreographer Anna Pavlova, now 43, gives a farewell tour of America with a 42-member company; Russian ballerina Alexandra Danilova, 20, of the Mariinsky Theater goes on tour with George Balanchine and defects. Sergei Diaghilev will engage her next year for his Ballets Russes and she will never return to the USSR.

Emigré Russian conductor and bass fiddle virtuoso Serge Koussevitsky, 50, makes his Boston debut October 10, beginning a 25-year career as director of the Boston Symphony (see Tanglewood, 1934).

Philadelphia's Curtis Institute of Music opens in October. Publishing heiress Mary Louise Curtis Bok, 48, married Louisa Curtis's successor as editor of the Ladies' Home Journal in 1896 and has given $500,000 to start the school. She will increase its endowment to $12.5 million by 1927 and it will be able to drop all tuition charges.

First performances: Rhapsody in Blue by George Gershwin 2/12 at New York's Aeolian Hall, with Paul Whiteman's Palais Royal Orchestra accompanying the pianist and composer who completed the piano score January 7 after 3 weeks of work. Composer Ferde Grofé, 31, has orchestrated the Rhapsody for piano and jazz ensemble; Symphony No. 7 in C major by Jean Sibelius 3/24 at Stockholm; Tzigane, Concert Rhapsody for Violin and Orchestra by Maurice Ravel 4/26 at London, with Hungarian virtuoso Yelly d'Arany as soloist; Pacifica 231 by Arthur Honegger 5/8 at Paris; Concerto for Piano, Wind Instruments, and Double-Basses by Igor Stravinsky 5/22 at Paris; The Pines of Rome (Pini di Roma) (Symphonic Poem) by Italian composer Ottorino Respighi, 45, 12/14 at Rome.

Composer Gabriel Fauré dies at Paris November 4 at age 76.

Broadway musicals: André Charlot's Revue of 1924 1/9 at the Times Square Theater, with English star Jack Buchanan, 30, Gertrude Lawrence, Beatrice Lillie, Jessie Matthews, Douglas Furber, music by Philip Braham, lyrics by Furber, songs that include "Limehouse Blues," 138 perfs.; Keep Kool 5/22 at the Morosco Theatre, with Hazel Dawn, Charles King, book and lyrics by Omaha-born writer Paul Gerard Smith, 29, music by Jack Frost, 148 perfs.; The Ziegfeld Follies 6/24 at the New Amsterdam Theater, with Will Rogers, Ann Pennington, Vivienne Segal (W. C. Fields and Ray Dooley will join next spring), costumes by Erté, music by Raymond Hubbell, Dave Stamper, Harry Tierney, Victor Herbert, and others, 520 perfs.; George White's Scandals 6/30 at the Apollo Theater, with music by George Gershwin, lyrics by B. G. DeSylva, 192 perfs.; Rose Marie 9/2 at the Imperial Theater, with New York-born singer Mary Ellis (originally May Bell Elsas), 27, Dennis King, music by Rudolf Friml, lyrics by Otto Harbach and Oscar Hammerstein II, songs that include "Indian Love Call" and the title song, 557 perfs.; The Passing Show 9/3 at the Winter Garden Theater, with James Barton, Harry McNaughton, music by Sigmund Romberg and Jean Schwartz, lyrics by Harold Atteridge, 104 perfs.; Greenwich Village Follies 9/16 at the Shubert Theater, with the Dolly Sisters, Moran and Mack, music and lyrics by Cole Porter, songs that include "I'm in Love Again," "Babes in the Woods," 127 perfs.; Annie Dear 11/4 at New York's Times Square Theater, with Billie Burke, Frank Kingdon, music, book, and lyrics by Clare Kummer, 103 perfs.; Dixie to Broadway 11/22 at the Broadhurst Theater, with Florence Mills in an all-black revue, music by George Meyer and Arthur Johnston, lyrics by Grant Clarke and New York-born writer Roy Turk, 32, 77 perfs.; Lady Be Good 12/1 at the Liberty Theater, with Fred Astaire and his sister Adele dancing to music by George Gershwin, lyrics by Ira Gershwin, songs that include "Somebody Loves Me," "The Man I Love," "Fascinating Rhythm," book by Guy Bolton and London-born writer Fred Thompson, 40, 184 perfs.; Music Box Revue 12/1 at the Music Box Theater, with Fanny Brice, Bobby Clark, Claire Luce, Grace Moore, music and lyrics by Irving Berlin, 184 perfs.; The Student Prince of Heidelberg 12/2 at the Jolson Theater, with music by Sigmund Romberg, lyrics by Dorothy Donnelly, songs that include "Deep in My Heart, Dear," "Welcome to Heidelberg," "Student Life," 608 perfs.; Betty Lee 12/25 at the 44th Street Theater, with Joe E. Brown, Gloria Foy, music by the late Louis A. Hirsch and Con Conrad, book by Otto Harbach for producer Rufus LeMaire, lyrics by Harbach and Irving Caesar, 111 perfs.

Composer Lionel Monckton dies at his native London February 15 at age 62; composer Louis A. Hirsch at New York May 13 at age 36; Victor Herbert at New York May 26 at age 65.

Bix Beiderbecke begins a 6½-year career that will make the name Bix immortal in the annals of jazz. Iowa-born cornetist Leon Bix Beiderbecke, 20, records "Fidgety Feet" February 18 at the Gennett Studios in Richmond, Indiana.

Popular songs: "It Had to Be You" by Isham Jones, lyrics by Gus Kahn; "Tea for Two" by Vincent Youmans, lyrics by Irving Caesar and Clifford Grey; "How Come You Do Me Like You Do?" by Gene Austin and Roy Bergere; "Does the Spearmint Lose Its Flavor on the Bedpost Over Night?" by Ernest Breuer, lyrics by Billy Rose and Marty Blevin; "What'll I Do" by Irving Berlin; "When My Sugar Walks Down the Street" by Gene Austin, Boston-born songwriter Jimmy McHugh, 30, Irving Mills; "Everybody Loves My Baby (But My Baby Don't Love Nobody But Me)" by Jack Palmer and Spencer Williams; "Hard Hearted Hannah, The Vamp of Savannah" by Jack Yellen, Bob Bigelow, and Charles Bates; Jelly Roll Morton and his Red Hot Peppers record "Big Foot Ham," "Bucktown Blues," "Froggie Moore," "Jelly Roll Blues," "London Blues," "Mamamita," "Perfect Rag," "Shreveport Stomp," "Stratford Hunch," "Tia Juana," "Thirty-Fifth Street," and "Tom Cat Blues"; "There's Yes Yes in Your Eyes" by Joseph H. Santly, lyrics by Cliff Friend; "Amapola (My Pretty Little Poppy)" by James M. LaCalle, lyrics by Albert Gamse; "When Day Is Done" ("Madonna") by Viennese composer Robert Katscher (B. G. DeSylva will write English lyrics).

sports

Forest Hills, Long Island, completes a tennis stadium for the West Side Tennis Club which held USLTA championship matches from 1915 to 1920 at Forest Hills. The matches that began in 1881 have been held for the past 3 years at Philadelphia's Germantown Cricket Club but will be held until 1980 at Forest Hills.

Jean Borotra, 25, (Fr) wins in men's singles at Wimbledon, Kathleen "Kitty" McKane, 27, (Br) in women's singles (beating Helen Wills; Lenglen defaults); Bill Tilden wins in men's singles at Forest Hills, Wills in women's singles.

Wembley Stadium opens for the British Empire Exhibition at Middlesex, England, with seating capacity for nearly 100,000.

British schoolteacher George Leigh Mallory, 38, and Cambridge student Andrew Irvine, 28, leave their canvas tent 26,800 feet up on the slopes of 29,035-foot Mount Everest in the Himalayas June 8 with 33-pound oxygen tanks in an attempt to become the first persons to reach its top (see exploration, 1841). Asked why he wanted to climb the world's highest mountain, Mallory had said, "Because it is there," but he falls and breaks a leg 775 feet from the summit (his body will not be discovered until 1999) and Irvine disappears as well (see Hillary, Tenzing Norgay, 1953).

The first winter Olympics open at Chamonix; the games at Paris attract 3,385 contestants from 45 nations. Uruguay wins the gold medal in football (soccer) (young Uruguayans learned the "crazy English game" from Britons who came to their country to build a railroad), Finnish track star Paavo Nurmi, 27, wins the 1,500-meter and 5,000-meter runs; English runner Harold (Maurice) Abrahams, 24, wins the 100-meter dash, defeating the heavily favored Americans Charles Paddock and Jackson Scholz (who wins the 200-meter); Tianjin (Tientsin)-born English runner Eric Liddell, 22, is a devout Christian and does not run in the 100-meter because it is held on a Sunday (he wins the 400-meter and takes the bronze in the 200-meter); U.S. athletes win the most medals overall (track star De Hart Hubbard, 20, wins the broad jump and becomes the first black American to receive an Olympic gold medal).

The Washington Senators win the World Series, defeating the New York Giants 4 games to 3.

The Kansas City Monarchs win the first Negro World Series, defeating the Philadelphia Hidales 6 to 4 behind the pitching of Cuban-born hurler José Mendez. The Negro Leagues have been drawing 400,000 fans per year.

Pennsylvania-born University of Illinois halfback Harold "Red" Grange, 21, receives the opening kickoff from undefeated University of Michigan October 18, runs it back 95 yards for a touchdown, scores three more touchdowns in the next 12 minutes, and a fifth later in the game. Sportswriter Grantland Rice will nickname him the "Galloping Ghost" and select Grange for his All-America team 3 years in a row.

Notre Dame University has an undefeated season thanks to a backfield that Grantland Rice calls the "Four Horsemen": Don Miller (162 pounds), Elmer Layden (162), Jim Crowley (164), and Harry Stuhldreher.

everyday life

Kleenex is introduced under the name Celluwipes by Kimberly & Clark. Ernest Mahler of 1918 Kotex fame suffers from hayfever and has developed the world's first disposable handkerchief from celucotton, a crepe paper material originally developed for use as a gasmask filter during the Great War; the name will be changed to Kleenex 'Kerchiefs, and it will be shortened subsequently to the one word Kleenex. Engineer Andrew Olsen devised a pop-up tissue box 4 years ago and it is used for the new product.

Miami Beach promoter Carl Fisher hires Lafayette, Ind.-born journalist-turned-publicity man Steve Hannagan, 25, who will deluge newspapers with pictures of Florida "bathing beauties" to convey the idea that the Atlantic at Miami Beach in January is warmer than the Pacific at Los Angeles in August.

President Coolidge says Father's Day should be observed by all Americans (see 1910). His sanction gives impetus to the idea of honoring fathers.

Paris milliner Lilly Daché, 32, arrives at New York, sells hats for R. H. Macy's, works for 10 weeks in a small Broadway hat shop, saves her money, and then opens her own shop with a $100 down payment, selling American-made hats molded to the head in the latest fashion. Working for Riboud last year, she introduced the cloche, a new shape to go with women's short hair.

The U.S. National Council of Catholic Women launches a campaign in July urging modesty in dress.

Polly's Apparel Shop at 2719 Broadway, New York, closes down as Polish-born New York retailer Polly (originally Pearl) Adler, 24, who arrived in steerage at Ellis Island in 1914, goes back into business as a madam with a large apartment off Riverside Drive, paying heavy bribes to corrupt law-enforcement officials to keep her establishment open. Raped at 17 by her supervisor in a Brooklyn shirt factory, Adler had an abortion, moved to Manhattan, worked in a corset factory, met a young actress who introduced her to gangsters and bootleggers on the upper West Side, met one who offered to pay her rent if he and his girlfriend could use her apartment as a meeting place, and began procuring for him and his friends. Soprano Rosa Ponselle was among the customers at her lingerie shop, whereas her brothel clients soon include actor Wallace Beery, playwright George S. Kaufman (who has a charge account), humorist Robert Benchley, business magnates, socialites, gambler Arnold Rothstein, and gangsters Al Capone, Jack "Legs" Diamond, and Dutch Schultz (Arthur Flegenheimer). Dark-haired, tall (five feet 11), plump, flamboyantly dressed, and surrounded by her "girls," Polly is soon a familiar figure at the city's popular speakeasies, moving her operation to Saratoga Springs each summer as she builds her business with houses that always have paneled French-gray walls and are furnished with jade and rose quartz lamps, Gobelin tapestries, and Louis XVI furniture (see crime, 1935).

crime

Chicago post-graduate students Nathan F. (Freudenthal) Leopold and Richard A. Loeb, both 19, confess May 31 that they have murdered 14-year-old schoolboy Robert "Bobby" Franks "in the interests of science." Leopold graduated from the University of Chicago at age 18, Loeb from the University of Michigan at age 17. They both come from rich families (Loeb's father is a Sears, Roebuck vice president). Having committed several petty crimes of theft and arson, they kidnapped Franks in a rented car on Chicago's south side May 21, hit the boy in the head with a chisel, stuffed a gag in his mouth, poured hydrochloric acid over his face to conceal his identity, half-buried his body in a railway culvert on the Indiana border, and demanded a ransom of $10,000 in a cold-blooded attempt to commit the "perfect murder." The body was discovered, Leopold's glasses were found near the culvert, the police arrested him and his cohort, and their parents hired lawyer Clarence Darrow, now 67, to defend them. He took the case to advance his campaign against capital punishment. Their sensational trial goes on for 33 days between July and August, Darrow saves them from the gallows with an eloquent appeal, and Judge John R. Caverly sentences them to life imprisonment for murder September 10, adding 99 years for kidnapping. Many members of the Leopold and Loeb families change their names. The two felons are sent to Northern Illinois Penitentiary near Joliet, where Loeb will be killed with a razor slash in January 1936 after allegedly making sadistic homosexual advances to a fellow inmate; Leopold will be paroled in 1958, work as a hospital technician in Puerto Rico, and live until 1971 (see Darrow, 1911; 1925).

Federal agents break up Florida's notorious Ashley gang after 14 years of bank robberies, hijackings, and (more recently) rum running on the Atlantic Coast.

Criminology by Nebraska-born University of Illinois sociologist Edwin H. (Hardin) Sutherland, 41, will go through four editions by 1947 (see "white-collar crime," 1939).

Aurora, Ill.-born Chicago bootlegger (Charles) Dion O'Bannion is shot dead at age 32 by a gunman who walks into his flower shop with two companions November 10 and guns him down as one of the companions (thought to be Brooklyn-born bootlegger Frankie Yale [Frank Uele]), shakes O'Bannion's hand. O'Bannion has controlled most of the city's best breweries and distilleries serving the North Side, including Gold Coast clubs and restaurants. The ensuing funeral attracts some 15,000 persons, including Johnny Torrio and Al Capone, setting new records for gaudy display as Hymie Weiss (Earl Wajchiechowski) takes over the O'Bannion mob to challenge Torrio and Capone for control of the illicit liquor traffic (see 1920; 1925).

architecture, real estate

Chicago's Wrigley Building is completed in May with a 32-story tower on Michigan Avenue for the William Wrigley Jr. Co. Designed by Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White, it has 442,000 square feet of office space and is the first large building north of the Chicago River.

The Federal Reserve Bank of New York building at 35 Liberty Street is completed in the style of a massive Florentine palazzo of Indiana limestone, Ohio sandstone, and ironwork (see commerce [Fort Knox], 1935).

Atlanta's 600-room Biltmore Hotel opens with circulating ice water and a private bath for every room. The Georgian-style structure has marble terraces, a lobby decorated in black and gold, and a formal garden; it will close in 1982.

Lima's Gran Hotel Bolivar opens with 350 rooms to begin half a century as Peru's central meeting place for businessmen, social leaders, and politicians.

Palm Beach, Florida, mansions designed by California-born architect Addison Mizner go up for U.S. millionaires. Now 52, Mizner went to the Yukon and the Klondike with his younger brother Wilson and an older brother years ago, has designed bungalows in California, studied in Spain, cultivated society figures at New York, and remodeled a 17th-century manor house for himself at Port Washington, Long Island, before going south to Palm Beach, where he became friends with sewing machine heir Paris Eugene Singer. He and Singer have purchased antiques on annual trips to Europe, but Mizner has found it more practical to set up small factories that turn out tiles (for roofs and decorative use); wrought-iron grills and hardware; cast stone made to resemble granite, limestone, or marble; stained glass; and antiqued cypress furniture. He designs Villa de Sarmiento for A. J. Drexel Biddle, Casa Bendita for John S. Philips, Concha Marina for George and Isabel Dodge, La Guerida for Rodman Wanamaker II, and El Sclano for Harold S. Vanderbilt, but his greatest project is El Mirasol, an enormous Moorish palace with 25 acres of lawn and a 20-car garage for J. P. Morgan partner E. T. (Edward Townsend) Stotesbury of Philadelphia (see 1925).

A $2 million Moorish castle for onetime cowboy Walter E. Scott, now 52, is completed in Death Valley's Grapevine Canyon, where the legend of "Death Valley Scotty" will attract California and Nevada tourists long after his death in 1954.

Architect Louis H. Sullivan dies in poverty at a rundown hotel on Chicago's Cottage Grove Avenue April 14 at age 67, having long since lapsed into alcoholism; Bertram G. Goodhue dies at New York April 23 at age 54.

The British Housing Act that becomes law in August establishes committees of building employees and employers with a view to building 190,000 new council houses at modest rents by next year and increase the number to 450,000 by 1934. Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald has made Irish-born Lanarkshire socialist Jack Wheatley, 55, his minister of health, and Wheatley's measure will stand as one of the few achievements of the first Labour government.

environment

The Clarke-McNary Act signed into law by President Coolidge June 7 amends the Weeks Law of 1911 to authorize federal purchase of forest land for timber production as well as stream-flow protection. By 1961 more than 20 million acres will have been purchased or exchanged.

The Oil Pollution Act signed June 7 updates the Refuse Act of 1899; it bans the discharge of oil from ships within three miles of shore, but American Petroleum Institute has lobbied against and stronger measure, the new law depends largely on self-regulation, and prosecution of violators will be lax (see 1966).

marine resources

General Seafoods Co. is founded at Gloucester, Mass., by Clarence Birdseye and three partners, who next year will begin marketing quick-frozen fish fillets (see 1923; 1926).

agriculture

Production of the first row-crop tractors begins, enabling farmers growing row crops to give up animal power and thereby lower their operating costs as well as shorten their workdays (see Ferguson, 1914). Previously existing machines are adapted to the new tractors: a cultivator is hung directly on the front of the tractor instead of being supported on wheels so the farmer can guide its operation; a corn planter is mounted on the side or rear. Most farmers continue to use horses or mules for traction power, and tractors still have steel wheels with lugs; farmers will be slow to accept rubber-tired tractors, but it is such tractors, which can be operated on modern, hard-surface roads as well as in the fields, that will finally convince farmers to use mechanized traction.

The first effective chemical pesticides are introduced (see DDT, 1939).

Nearly two-thirds of the commercial fertilizer sold in the United States goes to Southern farmers, who use it to push cotton to earlier maturity in order to frustrate the timetable of the boll weevil (see 1921).

Owens River Valley, California, farmers and ranchers armed with shotguns sit atop the Los Angeles water gates and blow up the city's aqueduct 17 times to prevent drainage of water from their lands (see environment, 1913). The disruptions sever L.A.'s water supply for weeks at a time, state militia and police are brought in to stop guerrilla attacks on the pipeline, but the conflict will continue for decades as San Fernando Valley fruit growers prosper and Angelinos irrigate palm trees, water lawns, flush toilets, and splash in swimming pools while the Owens River is sucked dry (see St. Francis Dam, 1926).

nutrition

Boston physicians George R. (Richards) Minot, 39, and William P. (Parry) Murphy, 32, of Peter Bent Brigham Hospital show that eating liver prevents and cures pernicious anemia (see Addison, 1855). Having studied C. H. Whipple's 1922 discoveries, they show that liver feedings have at least limited value in treating the disease in humans (see Cohn, 1926; Lilly, 1928; Castle, 1929).

Morton Salt iodizes its product to help eradicate goiter (see 1921). It is the first major brand of any food substance to have a medically beneficial ingredient added deliberately to help its marketing effort.

consumer protection

Botulism from canned California olives causes 16 deaths in the Midwest. All inventories of canned olives are destroyed on orders from Washington, and food brokers refuse to handle lesser known brands of canned fruits and vegetables.

food and drink

Continental Baking Co. is incorporated with headquarters at Chicago to manage a sprawl of nearly 100 plants that produce bread and cake under dozens of different labels. Created by a merger of United Bakeries and other companies, Continental will become the leading U.S. bakery firm (see Wonder Bread, Hostess Cakes, 1927).

Thirty percent of U.S. bread is baked at home, down from 70 percent in 1910.

Wheaties is introduced by Washburn, Crosby Co., whose advertising will soon promote the wheat-flake cereal (4.7 percent sugar) as "the breakfast of champions" (see 1921; General Mills, 1929).

The Episcle is patented by Frank Epperson, who will license the patent next year to the New York-based Joe Lowe Corp., founded in 1902 by food processor Lowe, now 41 (see 1923). Lowe will market the item under the name Popsicle and rename his company Popsicle Corp., Epperson will earn royalties on more than 60 million Popsicles by 1928, he will create the twin Popsicle in the 1930s, and Good Humor Corp. will later acquire rights to the "frozen ice on a stick" after Epperson has invented the Fudgsicle, Creamsicle, and Dreamsicle, and by the end of the century Americans will be consuming more than 1.2 billion Popsicles per year.

Lower cocoa prices enable Hershey Chocolate to increase the weight of its standard nickel bar from 1 oz. to 1 3/8 oz. (see 1930).

Soviet Russia repeals a 10-year-old prohibition against drinking alcoholic beverages (the law has been widely flouted).

Distillers Corp., Ltd., is founded by Canadian bootlegger Samuel Bronfman, 33, and his brother Allan, 28, who borrow the name of Britain's 47-year-old Distillers Co., Ltd., and build their first distillery at Ville La Salle outside Montreal (see Distillers Corp.-Seagram, 1928).

population

Novelist H. G. Wells leads a delegation May 9 to ask Britain's minister of health Jack Wheatley for birth-control reforms. A staunch Roman Catholic, Wheatley refuses to let health officers give contraceptive advice even to those who request it or to let physicians at welfare centers provide such information.

The Johnson-Reed Immigration Act passed by Congress May 26 after lobbying by the Ku Klux Klan limits the annual quota from any country to 2 percent of U.S. residents of that nationality in 1890 (see 1948; Dillingham Act, 1921). The act totally excludes Japanese despite a warning by the Japanese ambassador of grave consequences should the United States abandon the "gentlemen's agreement" of 1908. Sometimes called the National Origins Act, the new law bars virtually all Asians from entry (they will not be admitted until 1965) but permits close relatives of U.S. citizens to enter as non-quota immigrants and places no restrictions on immigration from Canada or Latin America. Immigration from Canada, Newfoundland, Mexico, and South America has its peak year, and the U.S. Border Patrol established in July tries to keep out illegal immigrants. Ellis Island has processed more than 70 percent of all U.S. immigrants since it opened in 1892; henceforth, most legal immigrants will be issued visas by U.S. consulates abroad, Ellis Island's function as a processing center will disappear, and the flood of immigrants into New York will slow to a trickle.

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