neurosis: Definition and Much More from Answers.com
- ️Wed Jul 01 2015
For psychoanalysts, neuroses are mental disorders that have no discernible underlying anatomical causes and whose symptomatology arises from intrapsychic conflict between unconscious fantasies bound up with the Oedipus complex and the defenses that these fantasies arouse. Neuroses may be defined in several ways. From a topographical standpoint, they may be defined in terms of a specific differentiation of the ego. From a dynamic standpoint, they may be defined by the ego's embrace (under the influence of the superego) of the reality principle, to the detriment of the pleasure principle and the id's instinctual demands, and this leads to the emergence of castration anxiety. From an economic standpoint, they may be defined by a prevalent but partly ineffective mobilization of the mechanisms of repression against the id's instinctual demands. Finally, from a developmental (or genetic) standpoint, they may be defined by the achievement of a symbolization of intrapsychic conflicts in accord with the oedipal model. This basic neurotic structure is variously associated, in the adult as in the child, with different sets of symptoms (hysterical, phobic, or obsessional).
Nineteenth-century medicine used the terms neurosis and psychasthenia interchangeably to denote nervous conditions of "functional" origin. It was accepted that the impact of such conditions on the various bodily systems (digestive, cardiopulmonary, urogenital, etc.) was unrelated to any underlying clinical or anatomical factors, and furthermore that there was no major degradation of the subject's relation to reality. This kind of exclusive diagnosis, purely behavioral and "pre-psychoanalytical," was revived in the 1990s by some present-day nosologies, among them the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) and the tenth edition of the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10).
As early as 1894 Freud drew a distinction between two classes of psychopathological phenomena: on the one hand, the so-called "actual" neuroses, which, in accordance with classical medical theories, he related to a sexual dysfunction contemporaneous with the mental condition (frustration in the case of "anxiety neurosis," masturbation in the case of "neurasthenia"), and on the other hand, the psychoneuroses of defense, whose cause, he set out to show, was to be found in an intrapsychic conflict of infantile origin.
Only the psychoneuroses, which for a time Freud called "transference neuroses," correspond to genuine neuroses as Freud definitively described them in 1924: anxiety hysteria (or phobic neurosis), conversion hysteria, and compulsive (or obsessive) neurosis. This clear distinction between the two types of neuroses, though Freud acknowledged that it was sometimes arbitrary, remained essential to his theory. The hypothesis that the origin of the psychoneuroses lies in intrapsychic childhood conflict constitutes, along with dream theory, the theoretical bedrock of psychoanalysis.
The topographical, dynamic, and economic viewpoints, as presented briefly above, have not undergone any serious revision since Freud's work of 1924. A handful of details aside, all psychoanalytic authors would probably concur with the following formulation from "Neurosis and psychosis": "The ego has come into conflict with the id in the service of the super-ego and of reality; and this is the state of affairs in every transference neurosis" (1924b [1923], p. 150). In contrast, the "genetic" or developmental standpoint still continues into the twenty-first century to spark endless controversy.
In his rereading of Freud's case of the "Wolf Man" (1918b [1914]), Jacques Lacan (1988) drew a clear distinction between what he called "foreclosure" (Verwerfung) and the concept of repression (Verdrängung). Evoking the feminine position assumed by the subject in the oedipal scenario (a position that prohibits the subject, under the threat of castration, from accepting genital reality), Lacan noted, "The Verwerfung thus cuts off short any manifestation of the symbolic order" (1988, p. 38). For Lacan, this inability to access the symbolic order differentiates psychosis from neurosis, where there is access to the symbolic order. In his terms, neurotics seek, in a more or less elaborate way, "to introduce into the demand whatever the object of their desire is" and, symmetrically, "to satisfy the demand of the Other by conforming their desire to it." Because the "Wolf Man" could not place himself within this oedipal interplay by means of a "deferred" interpretation of the initial scene of seduction, visited upon him at a very early age by his elder sister, he was partially barred from the "chain of signifiers." In contrast, the phobia of "little Hans" (Freud, 1909b) gave him access to the symbolic order and allowed him to structure his infantile neurosis.
From a quite different perspective, Melanie Klein (beginning in 1930) took up Freud's metapsychological hypothesis concerning the death instinct. Theorizing that infantile anxiety was directed not against the libido but against the destructive instincts, she developed the notions of the schizophrenic and depressive positions, which created a need to revise the theory of the neuroses. For Klein (1975), the possibility of arriving at the depressive position by acknowledging the presence of the destructive instincts within the personality enabled the subject to access the triangular relations of the Oedipus complex and hence to neurotically organize a personality capable of tolerating loneliness. Working in the same Kleinian theoretical tradition, Hanna Segal (1957) described the transition from symbolic equation (an inability to distinguish between symbols and the objects symbolized) to authentic symbolization. Later Segal (1991) extended the theory still further by considering the conditions of artistic creation and revisiting Freud's thoughts on sublimation.
Freud proposed the term "narcissistic neurosis" as a designation for manic-depressive psychosis. This suggestion was not adopted by others, but it draws attention to the need to distinguish between manic-depressive psychosis and the other psychoses, in which the nature of the intrapsychic conflict is clearly very different. Jean Bergeret has described as "false neuroses" a number of clinical conditions mentioned by a variety of authors ("failure neurosis," "abandonment neurosis," "character neurosis," "organ neurosis," and so on) and has proposed a more neutral nomenclature ("failure-prone behavior," "anaclitic relationship," and so on). It is true that, in contrast to hysterical neurosis and obsessional-compulsive neurosis, such conditions are not clearly related to the concept of a neurotic structure. Among such false neuroses, the "traumatic" or "war neuroses" occupy a special place in Freud's metapsychology, for they serve as a point of departure in his development of the hypothesis of a death instinct lying "beyond the 'pleasure principle' " (1920g). Finally, it should be noted that the classification transference neurosis has come to have a different meaning from what Freud originally assigned to it; it refers to certain phenomena manifesting themselves in the analysand's relationship with the analyst (transference psychosis is also used in this way).
The notion of neurosis is also related, of course, to the ideas of neuroticization and infantile neurosis as mental processes that give access to symbolization. It is in fact such a powerful organizing concept that it has sometimes been taken for an "overall vision of the human being." However, we would do well to remind ourselves of Freud's consistent and deeply negative attitude toward all such overarching visions and the mysticism that invariably accompanies them.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1894a). The neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 41-61.
——. (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy. SE, 10: 1-149.
——. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
——. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.
——. (1924b [1923]). Neurosis and psychosis. SE, 19: 147-153.
Klein, Melanie. (1946). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 27, 99-110.
——. (1975). On the sense of loneliness. In The writings of Melanie Klein, Vol. 4: Envy and gratitude and other works, 1946-1963. London: Hogarth. (Originally published 1963)
Lacan, Jacques. (1988). Introduction and reply to Jean Hyppolite's presentation of Freud's Verneinung. In The seminar of Jacques Lacan. Book 1: Freud's papers on technique, 1953-1954 (John Forrester, Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original work published 1954)
Segal, Hanna. (1957). Notes on symbol formation. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 38, 391-397.
——. (1988). Introduction to the work of Melanie Klein. London: Karnac Books.
——. (1991). Dreams, phantasy, and art. London: Routledge and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
Further Reading
Shapiro, David. (1999). Neurotic styles. New York: Basic.
—FRANCIS DROSSART
- This article describes the term in psychology. For the experimental metal band, see Neurosis (band).
Neurosis, also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, is a "catch all" term that refers to any mental imbalance that causes distress, but, unlike a psychosis or some personality disorders, does not prevent or affect rational thought. It is particularly associated with the field of psychoanalysis, which is one school of thought in psychology or psychiatry.
History and use of the term
To differentiate between neurosis and neurotic: "Neurotic", or affected by neurosis, has come to describe a person with any degree of depression or anxiety, depressed feelings, lack of emotions, low self-confidence, and/or emotional instability.
The term was coined by the Scottish doctor William Cullen in 1769 to refer to "disorders of sense and motion" caused by a "general affection of the nervous system." For him, it described various nervous disorders and symptoms that could not be explained physiologically. It derives from the Greek word neuron (nerve) with the suffix -osis (diseased or abnormal condition). The term was however most influentially defined by Sigmund Freud over a century later.
The American DSM-III has eliminated the category of Neurosis altogether. This largely reflects a decline in the fashionability of psychoanalysis, and the progressive expurgation of psychoanalytical terminology from the DSM. Those who retain a psychoanalytical perspective, which would include a majority of psychologists in countries such as France, continue to use the term 'neurosis'. According to The American Heritage Dictionary, however, it is "no longer in scientific use."[1]
Psychoanalytical account of neurosis
As an illness, neurosis represents a variety of psychiatric conditions in which emotional distress or unconscious conflict is expressed through various physical, physiological, and mental disturbances, which may include physical symptoms (e.g., hysteria). The definitive symptom is anxieties. Neurotic tendencies are common and may manifest themselves as depression, acute or chronic anxiety, obsessive-compulsive tendencies, phobias, and even personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. It has perhaps been most simply defined as a "poor ability to adapt to one's environment, an inability to change one's life patterns, and the inability to develop a richer, more complex, more satisfying personality." [2] Neurosis should not be mistaken for psychosis, which refers to loss of touch with reality.
The term connotes an actual disorder or disease, but under its general definition, neurosis is a normal human experience, part of the human condition. Most people are affected by neurosis in some form. A psychological problem develops when neuroses begin to interfere with, but not significantly impair, normal functioning, and thus cause the individual anxiety. Frequently, the coping mechanisms enlisted to help "ward off" the anxiety only exacerbate the situation, causing more distress. It has even been defined in terms of this coping strategy, as a "symbolic behavior in defense against excessive psychobiologic pain [which] is self-perpetuating because symbolic satisfactions cannot fulfill real needs." [3]
According to psychoanalytic theory, neuroses may be rooted in ego defense mechanisms, but the two concepts are not synonymous. Defense mechanisms are a normal way of developing and maintaining a consistent sense of self (i.e., an ego), while only those thought and behavior patterns that produce difficulties in living should be termed neuroses.
Effects and symptoms
There are many different specific forms of neuroses: pyromania, obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety neurosis, hysteria (in which anxiety may be discharged through a physical symptom), and an endless variety of phobias. According to Dr. George Boeree, effects of neurosis can involve:
...anxiety, sadness or depression, anger, irritability, mental confusion, low sense of self-worth, etc., behavioral symptoms such as phobic avoidance, vigilance, impulsive and compulsive acts, lethargy, etc., cognitive problems such as unpleasant or disturbing thoughts, repetition of thoughts and obsession, habitual fantasizing, negativity and cynicism, etc. Interpersonally, neurosis involves dependency, aggressiveness, perfectionism, schizoid isolation, socio-culturally inappropriate behaviors, etc. [4]
Treatment
Although neuroses are targeted by psychoanalysis, psychotherapy, counseling, or other psychiatric techniques, there is still controversy over whether these professionals can perform accurate and reliable diagnoses, and whether many of the resulting treatments are also appropriate, effective, and reliable. Some studies show no benefit is gained from talk therapies. However, some benefit is gained from other kinds of untrained personal companionship and discussion.
Jung's theory of neurosis
Jung found his approach particularly fitting for people who are successfully adjusted by normal social standards, but who nevertheless have issues with the meaning of their life.
I have frequently become neurotic when wrong answers to the questions of life (Jung, [1961] 1989:140).
The majority of my patients consisted not of believers but of those who had lost their faith (Jung, [1961] 1989:140).
[Contemporary man] is blind to the fact that, with all his rationality and efficiency, he is possessed by "powers" that are beyond his control. His gods and demons have not disappeared at all; they have merely got new names. They keep him on the run with restlessness, vague apprehensions, psychological complications, an insatiable need for pills, alcohol, tobacco, food – and, above all, a large array of neuroses. (Jung, 1964:82).
Jung found that the unconscious finds expression primarily through an individual’s inferior psychological function, whether it is thinking, feeling, sensing, or intuition. The characteristic effects of a neurosis on the dominant and inferior functions are discussed in Psychological Types.
Jung saw collective neuroses in politics... "Our world is, so to speak, dissociated like a neurotic" (Jung, 1964:85).
References
- ^ The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin. 2000. (ISBN: 0618082301)
- ^ Boeree, Dr. C. George. "A Bio-Social Theory of Neurosis", 2002.
- ^ Janov, Dr. Arthur. "Neurosis", 1998.
- ^ Boeree, Dr. C. George. "A Bio-Social Theory of Neurosis", 2002.
- Freud, Sigmund. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Trans. James Strachey. 24 vols. London: Hogarth, 1953-74.
- Horney, Karen. The Collected Works. (2 Vols.) Norton, 1937.
- Jung, C.G., et al. (1964). Man and his Symbols, New York, N.Y.: Anchor Books, Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-05221-9.
- Jung, C.G. (1966). Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, Collected Works, Volume 7, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01782-4.
- Jung, C.G. [1921] (1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.
- Jung, C.G. [1961] (1989). 'Memories, Dreams, Reflections, New York, N.Y.: Vantage Books. ISBN 0-679-72395-1
- Winokur, Jon. Encyclopedia Neurotica. 2005. ISBN 0-312-32501-0.
External links
- Boeree, Dr. C. George, "A Bio-Social Theory of Neurosis".
- Janov, Dr. Arthur, "Neurosis".
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Nederlands (Dutch)
neurose, zenuwziekte
Français (French)
n. - névrose
Deutsch (German)
n. - Neurose, Nervenkrankheit
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (ψυχολ.) (ψυχο)νεύρωση
Português (Portuguese)
n. - neurose (f)
Español (Spanish)
n. - neurosis
中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
神经症, 神经衰弱症
中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 神經症, 神經衰弱症
한국어 (Korean)
n. - 신경증, 노이로제, (심리)신경감동
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 神経症, ノイローゼ
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) العصاب : اضطراب عصبي وظيفي
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - עצבנת, נברוזה (הפרעה נפשית)
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