West Indies

The view that an ‘authentic’ French West Indian literature (or, more broadly still, ‘black’ literature in French) ‘began’ with the publication of the manifesto Légitime défense (1932) and the single number of L'Étudiant noir (March 1935) now seems a simplistic exaggeration. It cannot be doubted, however, that the intellectual ferment [discussed more fully in the entry négritude] born of the first sustained contacts in Paris in the 1930s between black African and black and mulatto West Indian students resulted in a literature that was fundamentally different in themes, tone, style, and above all quality from anything else that preceded it. With some exaggeration, Pigments (1937) by the Guianese poet Léon Damas has been described as the first work by a French West Indian in which the writer actively advertises his non-whiteness. It is, more precisely, the first work in which a distinctive French West Indian style is brought to bear on themes distinctly and wholly French West Indian. In Cahier d'un retour au pays natal, Aimé Césaire (M), deploying the full panoply of négritude themes with unequalled passion, intensity, and poetic inventiveness, created the first undoubted masterpiece of French West Indian writing, the catalytic effect of which continues to be felt to this day.

The new literature gathered momentum in Vichy-dominated Martinique between 1940 and 1943. The review Tropiques, edited by Césaire and with Suzanne Césaire and René Ménil as leading contributors, brought together poetry, folk-tales, and anthropological and other texts which, for the first time, proclaimed the cultural and psychospiritual specificity of the French West Indies. Insisting on their fundamentally ‘African’ character, they called in question the assimilationist assumptions both of French colonialism and of the over-whelming majority of black and coloured French West Indians. Yet the transformation of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Guiana into départements of France in 1946 initially had no stronger supporter than Césaire himself; for the next ten years he attempted to reconcile the anti-assimilationist dynamic inherent in his poetry (Les Armes miraculeuses, Soleil cou coupé, Corps perdu) and in the ideology of négritude as a whole with the assimilationist political praxis imposed on him by his role as Communist député for the Fort-de-France constituency of Martinique.

Up to the mid-1950s the most characteristic French West Indian writing—notably the novels of the Martinicans Joseph Zobel (La Rue Case-Nègres), Rafaël Tardon (Starkenfirst, 1947, and La Caldeira, 1948), and Léopold Sainville (Dominique, nègre esclave, 1951)—viewed French West Indian history as a continuous struggle against slavery, colonialism, and racism which, it was implied, departmentalization had brought to a successful conclusion. At the same time Frantz Fanon (M) pointed, in Peau noire masques blancs, to the presence of unresolved socio-political and psychological conflicts beneath the ‘mask’ of constitutional integration into metropolitan France, and uncomfortably suggested that the assimilationist impulse, far from being a solution, might actually be the source of the multiple alienations of black and coloured French West Indians. A growing unease surfaces in the early poetry of Édouard Glissant (M) and Guy Tirolien (G) (Balles d'or, 1961), and in the poems, written in both French and Creole, of Sonny Rupaire (G), later collected in Cette igname brisée qu'est ma terre natale (1971). The publication of Césaire's Lettre à Maurice Thorez in 1956, his break with the PCF, and subsequent founding of the autonomist Parti Progressiste Martiniquais in 1958 may be said to mark the end of the post-1946 departmentalist ‘honeymoon’, in Martinique at least. Though the majority of French West Indians have continued, with varying degrees of enthusiasm, to support departmentalization, most French West Indian writing since 1960 has, with differing degrees of intensity and from a diversity of political and ideological viewpoints, called that status increasingly into question.

Amidst the considerable bulk of writing produced in the French West Indies since 1960 a number of salient patterns can be discerned. In the first place, it is apparent that poetry has lost the central position it enjoyed during the ‘heroic’ period of the négritude movement between 1935 and 1960. Since Ferrements (1960), Césaire's poetic output has been slight and somewhat disappointing. While the work of Serge Patient (Gu), Georges Desportes (M) (Cette île qui est la nôtre, 1973, and Semailles de pollen, 1985), Élie Stephenson (Gu), Henri Corbin (G) (Plongée au gré des deuils, 1978; La Lampe captive, 1979; and La Terre où j'ai mal, 1982), and Ernest Pépin (M) (Au verso du silence, 1984) has many merits, it does not mark a major advance in terms of theme and language over the poetry of the 1940s and 1950s. More interesting are those poets such as Joby Bernabé (M), Monchoachi (M) (Dissidans, 1976, and Nostrom, 1981), and Hector Poullet (G) (Mi zanfan péyi la, 1967, and Pawól an bouch, 1982) who, following the notable example of Gilbert Gratiant (M) (Fab' Comp` Zicaque, 1958), have used Creole as their principal medium of expression.

Drama, though restricted by the shortcomings of local performing facilities, has made a notable advance through the plays of Césaire, Daniel Boukman (M), Maryse Condé (G), Vincent Placoly (M), and Ina Césaire (M). Once again Creole has been used with great effect, by Georges Mauvois (M) in his pioneering play Agénor Cacoul (1966) and, more recently, by Sonny Rupaire (Somanbile, 1987), Joby Bernabé, and Ina Césaire (L'Enfant des passages).

But it is undoubtedly the novel that has been the dominant genre in French West Indian writing since 1960. During the 1960s most fiction was broadly realist in character and, following the pattern of the 1950s, drew from an intense examination of the French West Indian past (notably slavery) an essentially optimistic vision of the future that is reflected in the titles of two of the best novels of the decade, Bertène Juminer's Au seuil d'un nouveau cri (Gu, 1963) and Glissant's Le Quatrième Siècle, the ‘prequel’ to his equally forward-looking La Lézarde of 1958. A broadly optimistic view of the French West Indian past, present, and future is likewise to be found in the sequence of novels written jointly or severally by Simone Schwarz-Bart (G) and her metropolitan French husband André [see also Etchart].

From 1970 onwards, however, as the distinctive identity of the French West Indies appeared to many observers to be crumbling beneath the combined pressures of emigration, unemployment, and the replacement of the traditional economy and culture by goods, mentalities, and life-styles imported from the métropole, an insistently pessimistic note entered French West Indian fiction. This is reflected in the salience of the word ‘mort’ in the titles of many of the most characteristic novels of the decade: Placoly's La Vie et la mort de Marcel Gonstran and L'Eau-de-mort guildive, Glissant's Malemort, and Mère la mort and la Meurtritude by the then Martinique-based metropolitan novelist Jeanne Hyvrard.

Novels of the 1980s have been ambivalent in tone and often experimental in form and language. The examination and reconstruction of the distant and recent past have been continued in Daniel Maximin's L'Isolé Soleil (G), Glissant's La Case du commandeur and Mahogany, Placoly's Frères volcans, and Raphaël Confiant's remarkable ‘re-creation’ of Martinique under the Vichy régime, Le Négre et l'Amiral. Other novelists of interest are Xavier Orville (M), Max Jeanne (G), and Ernest Moutoussamy (G), whose Il pleure dans mon pays (1980) and Aurore (1987) give voice for the first time to Guadeloupe's East Indian minority. A striking feature of French West Indian fiction since 1960 has been the large number of novels written by women, most of them, for reasons that remain obscure, Guadeloupean women: Schwarz-Bart, Michèle Lacrosil, the prolific and highly popular Maryse Condé, Jacqueline Manicom, Myriam Warner-Vieyra, Sylviane Telchid, Lucie Julia, Maryse Romanos, and Giséle Pineau. To them may be added the Martinicans Suzanne Dracius-Pinalie (L'Autre qui danse, 1989) and Marie-Reine de Jaham, whose La Grande Béké (1989) provides a late-20th-c. example of white Creole writing.

Novels have been written entirely in Creole by Raphaël Confiant (Bitako-a; Kod-yanm; Marisosé), but the most important development stylistically and linguistically is the potent and subversive fusion of French and Creole that he and Patrick Chamoiseau (M) (Chronique des sept misères; Solibo magnifique) have developed in their fiction. The link between fictional practice and broader ideological, cultural, and political issues is made evident in Glissant's massive Le Discours antillais (1981), in which the concept of antillanité is developed as a counter both to ‘Eurocentric’ assimilationism and ‘Afrocentric’ négritude. The concept, first developed in the short-lived Acoma (M, 1971-3) edited by Glissant, has received further elaboration in the review Carbet (M, founded 1983) and in the important manifesto Éloge de la créolité (1989) by Chamoiseau, Confiant, and the influential Creole linguist Jean Bernabé (M). Before 1970 there was, in a sense, no French West Indian literature, only books by French West Indians: the award of the Prix Goncourt to Chamoiseau's Texaco in 1992 marked the coming-of-age of an authentic French Caribbean style.

West Indies, archipelago, between North and South America, curving c.2,500 mi (4,020 km) from Florida to the coast of Venezuela and separating the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic Ocean. The archipelago, sometimes called the Antilles, is divided into three groups: the Bahamas; the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico); and the Lesser Antilles (Leeward Islands, Windward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados) and the islands off the northern coast of Venezuela.

The British dependent territories are the Cayman Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands, Anguilla, Montserrat, and the British Virgin Islands. The Dutch possessions are Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao, Bonaire, Saint Eustatius, Saba, and part of Saint Martin). The French overseas departments and administrative regions are Guadeloupe and its dependencies and Martinique. Puerto Rico is a self-governing commonwealth associated with the United States, and the Virgin Islands of the United States is a U.S. territory. Margarita belongs to Venezuela.

Many of the islands are mountainous, and some have partly active volcanoes. Hurricanes occur frequently, but the warm climate (tempered by northeast trade winds) and the clear tropical seas have made the West Indies a very popular resort area. Some 34 million people live on the islands, and the majority of inhabitants are of black African descent.

History

Before European settlement on the islands of the West Indies, they were inhabited by three different peoples: the Arawaks, the Caribs, and the Ciboney. These indigenous tribes were effectively wiped out by European colonists. Christopher Columbus was the first European to visit several of the islands (in 1492). In 1496 the first permanent European settlement was made by the Spanish on Hispaniola. By the middle 1600s the English, French, and Dutch had established settlements in the area, and in the following century there was constant warfare among the European colonial powers for control of the islands. Some islands flourished as trade centers and became targets for pirates. Large numbers of Africans were imported to provide slave labor for the sugarcane plantations that developed there in the 1600s.

Until the early 20th cent., the islands remained pawns of the imperialistic powers of Europe, mainly Spain, Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The United States entered the scene in the late 19th cent. and is the region's dominate economic influence. Spain lost its last possession in the West Indies after the Spanish-American War (1898), and most of the former British possessions gained independence in the 1960s and 70s (see West Indies Federation).

Bibliography

See E. E. Williams, From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean, 1492-1969 (1970); M. M. Horowitz, comp., Peoples and Cultures of the Caribbean: An Anthropological Reader (1971); J. H. Parry and P. M. Sherlock, A Short History of the West Indies (3d ed. 1971); R. C. West and J. P. Augelli, Middle America (2d ed. 1976); D. Watts, The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Culture, and Environmental Change since 1492 (1987).

"West Indian" redirects here. For the western part of India, see West India.

Size	An archipelago, 4,020 kilometres (2,500 mi) in length, and up to 257 kilometres (160 mi) wide; region contains more than 7,000 islands, islets, reefs, and cays
Population (2000)	37.5 million[1]
Ethnic groups	Africans (notably Igbo, Akan, Yoruba, Fon, Kongo),[2] Native Americans (Arawak, Caribs, Tainos), Europeans (Spanish, French, British, Portuguese, Dutch), Asian (Chinese, Indian)
Demonym	West Indian, Caribbean
Government	13 sovereign states; also, 2 overseas departments and 14 dependent territories, tied to the European Union or to the United States
Largest cities	Havana Santo Domingo Port-au-Prince Kingston San Juan Port of Spain
Internet TLD	Multiple
Calling code	Multiple
Time Zone	UTC-5 to UTC-4

The Caribbean^[3] is a region consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (most of which enclose the sea), and the surrounding coasts. The region is located southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and Northern America, east of Central America, and to the north of South America.

Situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 7,000 islands, islets, reefs, and cays. These islands, called the West Indies, generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea.^[4] These islands are called the West Indies because when Christopher Columbus landed there in 1492 he believed that he had reached the Indies (in Asia).

The region consists of the Antilles, divided into the larger Greater Antilles which bound the sea on the north and the Lesser Antilles on the south and east (including the Leeward Antilles), and the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in fact in the Atlantic Ocean north of Cuba, not in the Caribbean Sea.

Geo-politically, the West Indies are usually regarded as a sub-region of North America^[5][6][7][8] and are organized into 27 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. At one time, there was a short-lived country called the Federation of the West Indies composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then UK dependencies.

The region takes its name from that of the Carib, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of European contact.^[9]

Definition

The word "Caribbean" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation and the plantation system.

• Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea. To the north is the Caribbean Sea bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida, and the Northern Atlantic Ocean which lies to the East and Northeast; the coastline of the continent of South America lies to the south.
• Politically, "Caribbean" may be centred around socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example the block known as the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) contains both the Co-operative Republic of Guyana and the Republic of Suriname found in South America, along with Belize in Central America as full members. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands which are found in the Atlantic Ocean are Associate members of the Caribbean Community, and the same goes for the Commonwealth of the Bahamas which is a full member of the Caribbean Community.'
• Alternately the organisation known as the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) consists of almost every nation in the surrounding regions which lie on the Caribbean Sea plus El Salvador which lies solely on the Pacific Ocean. According to the ACS the total population of its member states is some 227 million people.^[10]

Demographics

The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, genocide and disease led to a decline in the Native American population.^[11][12] From 1500 to 1800 the population rose as slaves arrived from West Africa^[13] such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisioners and captured slaves from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England. ^[14] Immigrants from Britain, Italy. France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups.^[15]

The population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800.^[16] Immigrants from India, China, and other countries arrived in the 19th century.^[17] After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally.^[18] The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.^[1]

The majority of the Caribbean has populations of mainly Africans in the French Caribbean, Anglophone Caribbean and Dutch Caribbean, there are minorities of mixed-race and European peoples of Dutch, English, French, Italian, and Portuguese ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese and Indian descent, form a significant minority in the region and also contribute to multiracial communities. All of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.

The Spanish-speaking Caribbean have primarily mixed race, African, or European majorities. The Dominican Republic has mixed majority of African, European, and Native; Puerto Rico and Cuba have a European majority. The mixtures are those who are primarily descended from West Africans, Native Americans, and Spaniards.

Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrival of the Africans, Indians, Chinese, Syrians, Lebanese, Native Amerindians and Europeans. This multi-racial mix has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Chindian and Dougla.

Indigenous tribes

• Arawak
• Taíno
• Kalinago
• Ciboney
• Ciguayo
• Galibi
• Garifuna
• Igneri
• Lucayan
• Macorix

Language

Spanish, English, French, Dutch, Haitian Creole and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, though a handful of unique Creole languages or dialects can also be found from one country to another.

Religion

The largest religious groups in the region are: Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari, Santería, and Voodoo among others.

Geography and climate

The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies. Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, The Bahamas or Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Cuba, Dominica, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Montserrat, Puerto Rico, Saba, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique , and Trinidad & Tobago.

The climate of the region is tropical but rainfall varies with elevation, size and water currents (cool upwellings keep the ABC islands arid). Warm, moist tradewinds blow consistently from the east creating rainforest/semidesert divisions on mountainous islands. Occasional northwesterlies affect the northern islands in the winter. The region enjoys year-round sunshine, divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the last six months of the year being wetter than the first half.

The waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean.^[19]

Hurricanes, which at times batter the region, usually strike northwards of Grenada, and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean.

The region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the man-made Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.

Historical groupings

All islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:

• British West Indies/Anglophone Caribbean – Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bay Islands, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Croix (briefly), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago (from 1797) and the Turks and Caicos Islands
• Danish West Indies – present-day United States Virgin Islands
• Dutch West Indies – present-day Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, Virgin Islands, Saint Croix (briefly), Tobago and Bay Islands (briefly)
• French West Indies – Anguilla (briefly), Antigua and Barbuda (briefly), Dominica, Dominican Republic (briefly), Grenada, Haiti, Montserrat (briefly), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius (briefly), St Kitts (briefly), Tobago (briefly), Saint Croix, the current French overseas départements of Martinique and Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante, La Désirade and Les Saintes), and the current French overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin (France).
• Portuguese West Indies – present-day Barbados, known as Os Barbados in the 1500s when the Portuguese claimed the island en route to Brazil. The Portuguese left Barbados abandoned in 1533, nearly a century prior to the British arrival to the island.
• Spanish West Indies – Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic, and until 1609, Haiti), Puerto Rico, Jamaica (until 1655), the Cayman Islands, Trinidad (until 1797) and Bay Islands (until 1643)
• Swedish West Indies – present-day French Saint-Barthélemy and Guadeloupe (briefly).
• Courlander West Indies – Tobago (until 1691)

The British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches and One Day Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on that continent.

In addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories.

Modern day island territories

Continental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands

The nations of Belize and Guyana, although on the mainland of Central America and South America respectively, are former British colonies and maintain many cultural ties to the Caribbean. They are members of CARICOM. Nicaragua's Caribbean Coast, often referred to as the Mosquito Coast, was also a former British colony. It maintains many cultural ties to the Caribbean as distinct from the Pacific coast. Guyana participates in West Indies cricket tournaments and many players from Guyana have been on the West Indies Test cricket team. The Turneffe Islands (and many other islands and reefs) are part of Belize and lie in the Caribbean Sea. The nation of Suriname, on the mainland of South America, is a former Dutch colony and also a member of CARICOM.

Biodiversity

The Caribbean islands are classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because they support exceptionally diverse ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests to cactus scrublands. These ecosystems have been devastated by deforestation and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths.^[20] The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened species, ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles. Popular examples include the Puerto Rican Amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and Haiti, and the Cuban crocodile. The hotspot is also remarkable for the diversity of its fauna.

Politics

Regionalism

[Caribbean] societies are very different from other western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens.^[21] The current economic and political problems which the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM).^[22]

Certain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a “blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways.”^[23] The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.

The influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot not exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. “Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action.”^[24] These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.^[24]

Furthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. “With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean.”^[25] The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.

Following the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other.

United States effects on regionalism

The United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply.^[26] The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement.^[27]

During the US/EU dispute the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100% on some imports) from the EU in order to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement.^[28]

Farmers in the Caribbean have complained of their falling profits and rising costs. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal-drugs which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for illegal drugs in other parts of North America and Europe.^[29][30]

European Union effects on regionalism

The European Union has also taken issue with US based taxation extended to US companies via the Caribbean countries. The EU instituted a broad labeling of many nations as tax havens by the France-based OECD. The United States has not been in favor of shutting off the practice yet, mainly due to the higher costs that would be passed on to US companies via taxation. Caribbean countries have largely countered the allegations by the OECD by signing more bilateral information sharing deals with OECD members, thus reducing the dangerous aspects of secrecy, and they have strengthened their legislation against money laundering and on the conditions under which companies can be based in their nations. The Caribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry.

One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues which are unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.

Regional institutions

Here are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:

• Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago
• Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago^[31]
• Caribbean Association of National Telecommunication Organizations (CANTO), Trinidad and Tobago^[32]
• Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Guyana
• Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Barbados
• Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA), Barbados
• Caribbean Educators Network,^[33]
• Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), Saint Lucia^[34]
• Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica
• Caribbean Food Crop Society
• Caribbean Football Union (CFU)
• Caribbean Hotel Association (CHA), Puerto Rico^[35]
• Caribbean Initiative (Initiative of the IUCN)
• Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness (CPEC), Saint Lucia
• Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme (CREP), Barbados^[36]
• Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize^[37]
• Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic^[38]
• Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU), Trinidad and Tobago^[39]
• Caribbean Tourism Organisation (CTO), Barbados
• Inter-American Economic Council (IAEC), Washington, D.C.
• Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Saint Lucia
• Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC), Brazil and Uruguay
• United Nations - Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Chile and Trinidad and Tobago
• University of the West Indies, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago^[40]. In addition, the fourth campus, the Open Campus was formed in June 2008 as a result of an amalgamation of the Board for Non-Campus Countries and Distance Educationn, Schools of Continuing Studies, the UWI Distance Education Centres and Tertiary Level Units. The Open Campus has 42 physical sites in 16 Anglophone caribbean countries.
• West Indies Cricket Board, Antigua and Barbuda^[41]

Culture

Cuisine

Favorite or National dishes

•  Anguilla - Rice and Peas and Fish
•  Antigua and Barbuda - Fungee & Pepperpot
•  Bahamas - Crack Conch with Peas and Rice^[42]
•  Barbados - Cou-Cou and Flying fish
•  British Virgin Islands - Fish and fungee
•  Cayman Islands - Turtle Stew
•  Cuba - Platillo Moros y Cristianos, Ropa Vieja, Yuca, Maduros, Ajiaco
•  Dominica - Mountain chicken
•  Dominican Republic - White rice topped with stewed red kidney beans, pan fried or braised beef, and side dish of green salad and/or tostones, or the ever popular Dominican dish known as Mangú which is mashed plantains. The ensemble is usually called bandera nacional, which means "national flag", a term equivalent to the Venezuelan pabellón criollo.
•  Grenada - Oil-Down
•  Guyana - beef/chicken/potatoe curry and roti, catahar, callaloo, dhal and rice, plantains, white pudding, pumpkin and rice, okra, pepperpot, catfish curry
•  Haiti - Griot (Fried pork) served with Du riz a pois or Diri ak Pwa (Rice and beans)
•  Jamaica - ackee and saltfish, callaloo
•  Montserrat - Goat Water
•  Puerto Rico - Arroz con gandules with roasted pork shoulder, arroz con pollo, Mofongo
•  Saint Kitts and Nevis - Coconut dumplings, Spicy plantain, saltfish, breadfruit
•  Saint Lucia - Green Bananas & Dried and salted cod
•  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - Roasted Breadfruit & Fried Jackfish
•  Trinidad and Tobago - Doubles, Roti, Crab and dumpling, Pelau
•  United States Virgin Islands - Kallaloo, fish and fungee

See also

• African diaspora
• Americas (terminology)
• British Afro-Caribbean community
• Caribbean Spanish
• Caribbean English
• Caribbean Sea
• CONCACAF
• Council on Hemispheric Affairs
• History of the Caribbean
• Indo-Caribbean
• Islands of the Caribbean
• Latin American and Caribbean Congress in Solidarity with Puerto Rico’s Independence
• List of Indigenous Names of Eastern Caribbean Islands
• Middle America (Americas)
• Mountain peaks of the Caribbean
• Music of the Caribbean
• Piracy in the Caribbean
• Politics of the Caribbean
• Tongue of the Ocean
• Tourism in Caribbean
• West Indies Federation

References

"Diversity Amid Globalization" 4th edition. Rowntree, Lewis, Price, Wyckoff.

Further reading

• Develtere, Patrick. 1994. "Co-operation and development: With special reference to the experience of the Commonwealth Caribbean" ACCO, ISBN 90-334-3181-5
• Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migraton, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.
• Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean. Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2003.
• Heuman, Gad. The Caribbean: Brief Histories. London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2006
• Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J. D'agostino, eds. Understanding the Contemporary Caribbean. London: Lynne Rienner, 2003.
• de Kadt, Emanuel, (editor). Patterns of foreign influence in the Caribbean, Oxford University Press, 1972
• Knight, Franklin W.. The Modern Caribbean. na: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989.
• Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. ISBN 0-201-52396-5
• Langley, Lester D. The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.
• Maingot, Anthony P. The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship. Westview P, 1994.
• Ramnarine, Tina K., "Beautiful Cosmos: Performance and Belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora". London, Pluto Press, 2007
• Serbin, Andres. "Towards an Association of Caribbean States: Raising Some Awkward Questions." Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs (2004): 1-19. (This scholar has many articles referencing the politics of the Caribbean)

External links

• Wikitravel - The Caribbean
• Digital Library of the Caribbean
• Federal Research Division of the U.S. Library of Congress: Caribbean Islands (1987)
• West Indies papers Miscellaneous personal and estate records, 1663-1929, University of Bristol Library Special Collections
• LANIC Caribbean country pages

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