Cree language

Cree
Nēhiyawēwin (Plains Cree), Nīhithawīwin (Woods Cree), Nēhinawēwin, ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ, Nehirâmowin (Atikamekw), Nehilawewin (Western Montagnais, Piyekwâkamî dialect), Leluwewn (Western Montagnais, Betsiamites dialect), Innu-aimûn (Eastern Montagnais), Iynu-Ayamûn (Southern Inland East Cree), Iyiyiw-iyimiwin (Northern East Cree)
Spoken in	Canada
Total speakers	117,410 (including Montagnais-Naskapi and Atikamekw) [1]
Language family	Algic Algonquian Central Algonquian Cree
Writing system	Latin alphabet, Cree syllabics (variation of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics)
Official status
Official language in	Northwest Territories (Canada)
Regulated by	No official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-1	cr
ISO 639-2	cre
ISO 639-3	cre – Macrolanguage individual codes: nsk – Naskapi moe – Montagnais atj – Atikamekw crm – Moose Cree crl – Northern East Cree crj – Southern East Cree crw – Swampy Cree cwd – Woods Cree crk – Plains Cree
Linguasphere	–
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.

Cree (Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ; also known as Cree-Montagnais, Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi) is an Algonquian language represented by a large dialect continuum spoken by approximately 117,000 people across Canada, from the Northwest Territories and Alberta to Labrador, making it one of the few North American Aboriginal languages with an expansive and healthy speaker base, alongside Inuktitut and Navajo.^[1] Despite numerous speakers within this wide-ranging area, the only region where Cree has any official status is in the Northwest Territories, alongside eight other aboriginal languages.^[2]

Dialect criteria

The Cree dialect continuum can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken in northern Ontario and the southern James Bay, Lanaudière, and Mauricie regions of Quebec make a distinct difference between /ʃ/ (sh as in she) and /s/, while those to the west (where both are pronounced /s/) and east (where both are pronounced either /ʃ/ or /h/) do not. In several dialects, including northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, the long vowels /eː/ and /iː/ have merged into a single vowel, /iː/. In the Québec communities of Chisasibi, Whapmagoostui, and Kawawachikamach, the long vowel /eː/ has merged with /aː/.

However, the most transparent phonological variation between different Cree dialects are the reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *n in the modern dialects, as shown below:

Dialect	Location	Reflex of *n	Word for "Native person" ← *enenyiwa	Word for "You" ← *kīna
Plains Cree	SK, AB, BC, NT	y	iyiniw	kiya
Woods Cree	MB, SK	ð/th	iðiniw/ithiniw	kīða/kītha
Swampy Cree	ON, MB, SK	n	ininiw	kīna
Moose Cree	ON	l	ililiw	kīla
Northern East Cree	QC	y	īyiyū	čīy ᒌ
Southern East Cree	QC	y	iynū	čīy ᒌ
Kawawachikamach Naskapi	QC	y	iyyū	čīy
Atikamekw	QC	r	iriniw	kīr
Western Innu	QC	l	ilnū	čīl
Eastern Innu	QC, NL	n	innū	čīn

The Plains Cree, speakers of the y dialect, refer to their language as nēhiyawēwin, whereas Woods Cree speakers say nīhithawīwin, and Swampy Cree speakers say nēhinawēwin. This is similar to the alternation in the Siouan languages Dakota, Nakota, and Lakota.

Another important phonological variation among the Cree dialects involves the palatalisation of Proto-Algonquian *k: East of the Ontario-Quebec border (except for Atikamekw), Proto-Algonquian *k has changed into /tʃ/ or /ts/ (ch as in cheese and ts as in Watson) before front vowels. See the table above for examples in the *kīla column.

Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages: Cree and Montagnais. Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k -> /tʃ/ sound change (BC–QC) while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred (QC–NL). These labels are very useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as East Cree then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers the dialects which use syllabics as their orthography (including Atikamekw but excluding Kawawachikamach Naskapi), the term Montagais then applies to those dialects using the Latin script (excluding Atikamekw and including Kawawachikamach Naskapi). The term Naskapi typically refers to Kawawachikamach (y-dialect) and Natuashish (n-dialect).

Dialect groups

The Cree dialects can be broadly classified into nine groups. From west to east:

ISO-3	ISO-3 name	Linguasphere	Linguasphere name	dialect type	additional comments
cre	Cree (generic)	62-ADA-a	Cree		A rough map of Cree dialect areas
cwd	Woods Cree (Nīhithawīwin)	62-ADA-ab	Woods Cree	th / k / s / ī	Also known as "Woods/Rocky Cree". In this dialect ē has merged into ī.
crk	Plains Cree	62-ADA-aa	Plains Cree	y / k / s / ī (northern) y / k / s / e (southern)	Divided to Southern Plains Cree (Nēhiyawēwin) and Northern Plains Cree (Nēhiyawēmowin). In the Northern dialect, ē has merged into ī.
crw	Swampy Cree (Nēhinawēwin)	62-ADA-ac	Swampy Cree, West (Ininīmowin)	n / k / s / e (western) n / k / s\š / e (eastern)	Also known as "West Main Cree." In the western dialect, š has merged with s.
62-ADA-ad	Swampy Cree, East (Ininiwi-Išikišwēwin)
crm	Moose Cree (Ililīmowin)	62-ADA-ae	Moose Cree	l / k / s\š / e	Also known as "West Main Cree." "Central Main Cree," "West Shore Cree," or "York Cree."
crl	Northern East Cree (Īyiyū Ayimūn)	62-ADA-af	Cree, East	y / č / s\š / ā (northern) y / č / s\š / e (southern-coastal) y / č / š~s / e (southern-inland)	Also known as "James Bay Cree" or "East Main Cree". The long vowels ē and ā have merged in the northern dialect but are distinct in the southern. Southern East Cree is divided between coastal (southwestern) and inland (southeastern) varieties. Also, the inland southern dialect has lost the distinction between s and š. Here, the inland southern dialect falls in line with the rest of the Naskapi groups where both phonemes have become š. Nonetheless, the people from the two areas easily communicate.
crj	Southern East Cree (Īnū Ayimūn)	62-ADA-ag	Cree, Southeast
		62-ADA-b	Innu
nsk	Naskapi	62-ADA-ba	Mushau Innuts
62-ADA-baa	Koksoak	y / č / š~s / ā	Western Naskapi (Kawawachikamach)
62-ADA-bab	Davis Inlet	n / č / š~s / ā	Eastern Naskapi (Mushuau Innu or Natuashish)
moe	Montagnais	62-ADA-bb	Uashau Innuts + Bersimis
62-ADA-bbe	Pointe Bleue	l / č / s\š / e	Western Montagnais (Leluwewn); also known as the "Betsiamites dialect"
62-ADA-bbd	Escoumains
62-ADA-bbc	Bersimis
62-ADA-bbb	Uashaui Innuts	n / č / s\š / e	Western Montagnais (Nehilawewin), but sometimes called "Central Montagnais" or "Piyekwâkamî dialect"
62-ADA-bba	Mingan	n / č / s\š / e	Eastern Montagnais (Innu-aimûn)
		62-ADA-c	Atikamekw
atj	Atikamekw (Nehirâmowin)	62-ADA-ca	Manawan	r / k / s\š / e
62-ADA-cb	Wemotaci
62-ADA-cc	Opitciwan

Phonology

This table is made to show all possible consonant phonemes that may be included in a Cree language.

Consonant phonemes

	Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m		n
Stop	p	t	t͡s	t͡ʃ		k
Fricative		ð	s	ʃ			h
Approximant			ɹ		j	w
Lateral			l

Syntax

Like many Native American languages, Cree features a complex polysynthetic morphology and syntax. A Cree word can be very long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example, the Plains Cree word for "school" is kiskinohamātowikamikw, "know.CAUS.APPLICATIVE.RECIPROCAL.place" or the "knowing-it-together-by-example place".

Written Cree

Cree dialects, except for those spoken in eastern Quebec and Labrador, are traditionally written using Cree syllabics, a variant of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, but can be written with the Roman alphabet as well. The easternmost dialects are written using the Roman alphabet exclusively.

Cree dialects for the James Bay Cree are written using Cree syllabics.

Contact languages

Cree was also a component language in two contact languages unique to Western Canada. Michif is a mixed language combining Cree and French. Bungee is a dialect of English with substrate influences from Cree and Scottish Gaelic. Both languages were spoken by Métis voyageurs and settlers in Western Canada. Michif is still spoken in central Canada and in North Dakota. Many Cree words also became the basis for words in the Chinook Jargon trade language used until some point after contact with Europeans.^{[citation needed]}

Legal status

The social and legal status of Cree varies across Canada. Cree is one of the eleven official languages of the Northwest Territories, but is only spoken by a small number of people there in the area around the town of Fort Smith.^[2]

In many areas, it is a vibrant community language spoken by large majorities and taught in schools through immersion and second-language programmes. In other areas, its use has declined dramatically. Cree is one of the least endangered aboriginal languages in North America, but is nonetheless at risk since it possesses little institutional support in most areas.

See also

• Cree Dictionary
• Cree people
• The Gift of Language and Culture Project

References

• Ethnologue entry for Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi

Notes

External links

• The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas
• The Gift of Language and Culture website
• Nehinawe: Speak Cree
  • Cree Language Lessons
• The East Cree language web
  • Cree on-line Spelling Lessons
  • The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas
  • On-line Eastern James Bay Cree dictionary (covers both Northern and Southern dialects)
• Our Languages: Cree (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre)
• Languagegeek: Cree—OpenType font repository of aboriginal languages (including Cree).
• CBC Digital Archives—Eeyou Istchee: Land of the Cree
• On-line Cree dictionary
• Path of the Elders - Explore Treaty 9, Aboriginal Cree & First Nations history.