Courtney Friesen | University of Arizona - Academia.edu

While many ancient Jewish and Christian leaders voiced opposition to Greek and Roman theater, thi... more While many ancient Jewish and Christian leaders voiced opposition to Greek and Roman theater, this volume demonstrates that by the time the public performance of classical drama ceased at the end of antiquity the ideals of Jews and Christians had already been shaped by it in profound and lasting ways. Readers are invited to explore how gods and heroes famous from Greek drama animated the imaginations of ancient individuals and communities as they articulated and reinvented their religious visions for a new era. In this study, Friesen intellectual formulations, narrative constructions, and practices of ritual and liturgy. Through a series of interrelated case studies, the book examines how particular plays, through texts and performances, scenes, images, and heroic personae, retained appeal for Jewish and Christian communities across antiquity. The volume takes an interdisciplinary approach involving classical, Jewish, and Christian studies, and brings together these separate avenues of scholarship to produce fresh insights and a reevaluation of theatrical drama in relation to ancient Judaism and Christianity. Acting Gods, Playing Heroes, and the Interaction between Judaism, Christianity, and Greek Drama in the Early Common Era allows students and scholars of the diverse and evolving religious landscapes of antiquity to gain fresh perspectives on the interplay between the gods and heroes-both human and divine-of Greeks and Romans, Jews and Christians as they were staged in drama and depicted in literature.

Courtney J. P. Friesen explores shifting boundaries of ancient religions by way of the reception ... more Courtney J. P. Friesen explores shifting boundaries of ancient religions by way of the reception of a popular tragedy, Euripides’ Bacchae . As a play staging political crises provoked by the arrival of the “foreign” god Dionysus and his ecstatic cult, audiences and readers found resonances with their own cultural moments. This dramatic deity became emblematic of exuberant and liberating spirituality and, at the same time, a symbol of imperial conquest. Thus, readings of the Bacchae frequently foreground conflicts between religious autonomy and political authority, and between ethnic diversity and social cohesion. This cross-disciplinary study traces appropriations and evocations of this drama ranging from the fifth century BCE through Byzantium not only among “pagans” but also Jews and Christians. Writers variously articulated their religious visions over against Dionysus, often while paradoxically adopting the god’s language and symbols. Consequently, imitation and emulation are at times indistinguishable from polemics and subversion.

This study analyzes how two recent productions of the Bacchae in the USA—by the SITI Company and ... more This study analyzes how two recent productions of the Bacchae in the USA—by the SITI Company and the Classical Theatre of Harlem—activated Euripidean themes that confront the politics and rhetoric of Donald Trump. Through various interventions and adaptations, the ancient tragedy yields contemporary resonances: patriarchal control and authoritarianism are constructed and sustained by manufacturing threats posed by marauding bands of foreigners, even as the haunting denouement reveals that the most destructive perils reside within. In the drama as in Trump’s ascendency, political domination is pursued through performances that reorient illusion and reality.

Postscripts, 2022

The presidency of Donald Trump exposed and amplified dynamics long active in American religion. A... more The presidency of Donald Trump exposed and amplified dynamics long active in American religion. Although the overwhelming support of evangelical Christians took many by surprise due to his unconventional religious qualifications, scholars have increasingly established that this political alliance reflects numerous well-established commitments. Accordingly, this study analyzes the function of the Bible in the rhetoric of Trump’s Christian supporters. Among those surveyed, fundamentalist assumptions of biblical authority and inerrancy are held in common even while the exegetical techniques deployed diverge widely from the corresponding principles of “literal” interpretation and “original” meanings. Their tendencies are rather toward divinatory even quasi-magical appropriations of scriptural excerpts, practices attested in antiquity though less well known in American Christianity. For these political apologists, the Bible’s status approaches that of a ritual icon possessing spiritual power and conferring authority and legitimacy on those who wield it.

Philo of Alexandria speaks with fondness of his experience in the audience at ap erformance of Eu... more Philo of Alexandria speaks with fondness of his experience in the audience at ap erformance of Euripides, and throughout his corpus he quotes from this playwright on 21 occasions and from 10 different plays.Asawriter whose driving interest was the exposition of Jewish scriptures in conjunction with Hellenistic philosophy, Philo'sr epeatedr ecourset otragedy is noteworthya nd illustrative of his intellectual milieu. This studyw ill consider whya nd how Philo deploys Euripides. Most often, his quotations are gnomic sayingsand philosophicalproof texts which werecommon currencyamong contemporary writers.With respect to at least one drama, however, the satyr-play Syleus,P hilo engagesi namore extensive discussion of its context, producing astring of five fragments, four of which are unattested elsewhere. By surveying his use of Euripides, Iaim to make evident the extent to which Philo was dependent upon receivedp hilosophical and literary sources, along with moments of his own innovation as he reads Attic drama in connection with his distinctive Jewish religious commitments. At first glance, Philo of Alexandria and Euripides appeart oh avel ittle in common. They wered ivided by four centuries, inhabited separate continents,a nd identified with different religious traditions. Euripides' works wereperformed at Dionysiac festivals;h is plays both celebrate and interrogate the ideals of Greek religion and society;bycontrast,Philo'sprosetreatisesare steeped in Jewish thought and frequently engagei nt he exposition of authoritative scriptural texts.I ns ome other respects, however,the intellectual projects of Philo and Euripides converge. Both inherited established generic and literarym odels-dramatic conventions for Euripides, and accepted modes of biblical exegesis for Philo. Each adopted these, respectively,while at the sametime transformingthem in numerous and, at times, unexpected directions. And while their remarkable literary outputs had profound influences, the trajectory of their innovations werenot directlyrealized: Euripides is the lastofthe celebrated Attic playwrights, and Philo'sd istinctive approach to the Bible would largely not be taken up by his fellow Jews, though manye arlyC hristians would appropriate it. Additional similarities are evident.E uripides and Philo inheritedc orporao fl iterature consistingo fh eroic legends, whose meanings they probed and tested; for both, culturalo rm ythological heroes become, on occasion, vehicles for expressing contemporaryp hilosophical problems. Fori nstance,i nafragmento fE uripides' Chrysippus (fr.839 Kannicht), the chorus relatethe cosmological views of the philos

In depicting an apocalyptic expectation of the revelation of God's children (Rom 8.19–23), Paul p... more In depicting an apocalyptic expectation of the revelation of God's children (Rom 8.19–23), Paul personifies 'creation': awaiting the revelation of these children, she 'groans and suffers pains of childbirth.' While Paul's vision is framed with scriptural allusions, Greek and Roman images of Earth Mother also provide a relevant juxtaposition. This study recovers such a context by surveying sources ranging from Hesiod's Gaia to the Roman Terra Mater. Philo provides an especially relevant comparative model, as he relates biblical cosmology to Greek mythological sources and asserts that earth's role as mother is also attested in Genesis. In light of these comparisons, fresh insights emerge: maternal creation gives birth to a new divine era, yet for Paul this remains a future hope rather than a past (mythological) or present (political) occurrence.

In 1 Cor 4:9, Paul writes that God has “displayed” the apostles as condemned to death, “for we ha... more In 1 Cor 4:9, Paul writes that God has “displayed” the apostles as condemned to death, “for we have become a theater for the cosmos.” This is followed by three (ironic) antitheses contrasting the apostles, who were foolish, weak, and dishonored with the Corinthians as wise, strong, and honored. Interpretations of this metaphor of the theater have emphasized Roman spectacles of death as background to Paul’s depiction of apostolic adversity. Without denying the cultural significance of public displays of combat and execution, this study proposes a fresh perspective on Paul’s “theater” in view of tragic drama. As in 1 Cor, a central feature of many tragedies was the surprising downfall of those self-assured in their own wisdom and political power. Like his younger contemporary Epictetus, Paul evoked theatrical reversal to deflate the allure of human prestige, which, in his distinctly apocalyptic mode, would be nullified at the final judgment, deus ex machina.

In De ebrietate 150, Philo quotes Hesiod's Works and Days (287,[289][290][291][292] in his interp... more In De ebrietate 150, Philo quotes Hesiod's Works and Days (287,[289][290][291][292] in his interpretation of Hannah's alleged drunkenness in 1 Samuel. These poetic verses contrast the difficulty of the road to virtue with the ease of acquiring wickedness. On Philo's reading, the misperception of Hannah's "hard day" by her accuser illustrates the moral lesson of Hesiod, namely, that fools consider virtue to be beyond attainment. In the context of recent interest in the ways in which Philo's literary methods converge with those of other ancient readers, especially Alexandrian scholars, this study situates Philo's application of Hesiod's didactic poetry within its wider history of interpretation. As early as Plato and continuing through Philo's time, Hesiod's "two roads" was frequently cited in philosophical discourse and debate. Moreover, analogously to Philo, Alexandrian critics employed this passage in explaining the morality of literary characters. Philo's use of Hesiod is consistent with this interpretive tradition. At the same time, his originality consists in his creation of a dialogue between Hesiod and biblical narrative in which both voices converge around the same ethical lesson.

The Old Greek of 1 Sam. 1:11 includes a component of Hannah’s vow lacking in the MT: ‘wine and st... more The Old Greek of 1 Sam. 1:11 includes a component of Hannah’s vow lacking in the MT: ‘wine and strong drink [Samuel] shall not drink’.  The status of this phrase in the translator’s Vorlage is ultimately inconclusive: on the one hand, it is plausible that the translator inserted it under the influence of Hannah’s later assertion of her own sobriety (1:15) or in conformity to the Nazirite vow (e.g., Num. 6:2–5); on the other, its probable attestation in 4QSam provides an early Hebrew witness.  This paper explores the implications of this ‘plus’ as it relates to the moral and religious entailments of alcohol in ancient Judaism and Christianity, with particular attention to Philo of Alexandria and the Gospel of Luke.  The former takes this text as a test case in his treatment of the ethical question of whether the sage will get drunk.  In the latter, it provides a model for the asceticism of John the Baptist.  In both, however, abstinence from alcohol is subordinated to a higher spiritual ideal: ‘sober inebriation’ for Philo and the messianic banquet in Luke.

The divergence between the MT and LXX in Hannah’s response to Eli’s accusation ofdrunkenness (1 S... more The divergence between the MT and LXX in Hannah’s response to Eli’s accusation ofdrunkenness (1 Sam 1:15) has long puzzled scholars. The Greek phrase, “I am a woman who has a hard day (σκληρὰ ἡμέρα)”, is an improbable rendering of the Hebrew קשת
רוח (“hard of spirit”). This is commonly explained by way of a hypothetical Vorlage, קשת יום (lit., “hard of day”), which consequently becomes the preferred reading over against the MT. The central argument is that קשה would mean “obstinate” or “stubborn”,
which is not fitting for Hannah’s speech. This brief study problematizes this prevailing
view, arguing instead that the MT appropriately characterizes a misfortune perceived by
Hannah to be the result of God’s action.

Religious Studies Review , 2021

each contribution. Some chapters speak primarily to specialists, but there is a broader appeal to... more each contribution. Some chapters speak primarily to specialists, but there is a broader appeal to most. Brimming with new work by leading experts, this volume will have something to offer all readers interested in Roman religion, history, and politics.

While many ancient Jewish and Christian leaders voiced opposition to Greek and Roman theater, thi... more While many ancient Jewish and Christian leaders voiced opposition to Greek and Roman theater, this volume demonstrates that by the time the public performance of classical drama ceased at the end of antiquity the ideals of Jews and Christians had already been shaped by it in profound and lasting ways. Readers are invited to explore how gods and heroes famous from Greek drama animated the imaginations of ancient individuals and communities as they articulated and reinvented their religious visions for a new era. In this study, Friesen intellectual formulations, narrative constructions, and practices of ritual and liturgy. Through a series of interrelated case studies, the book examines how particular plays, through texts and performances, scenes, images, and heroic personae, retained appeal for Jewish and Christian communities across antiquity. The volume takes an interdisciplinary approach involving classical, Jewish, and Christian studies, and brings together these separate avenues of scholarship to produce fresh insights and a reevaluation of theatrical drama in relation to ancient Judaism and Christianity. Acting Gods, Playing Heroes, and the Interaction between Judaism, Christianity, and Greek Drama in the Early Common Era allows students and scholars of the diverse and evolving religious landscapes of antiquity to gain fresh perspectives on the interplay between the gods and heroes-both human and divine-of Greeks and Romans, Jews and Christians as they were staged in drama and depicted in literature.

Courtney J. P. Friesen explores shifting boundaries of ancient religions by way of the reception ... more Courtney J. P. Friesen explores shifting boundaries of ancient religions by way of the reception of a popular tragedy, Euripides’ Bacchae . As a play staging political crises provoked by the arrival of the “foreign” god Dionysus and his ecstatic cult, audiences and readers found resonances with their own cultural moments. This dramatic deity became emblematic of exuberant and liberating spirituality and, at the same time, a symbol of imperial conquest. Thus, readings of the Bacchae frequently foreground conflicts between religious autonomy and political authority, and between ethnic diversity and social cohesion. This cross-disciplinary study traces appropriations and evocations of this drama ranging from the fifth century BCE through Byzantium not only among “pagans” but also Jews and Christians. Writers variously articulated their religious visions over against Dionysus, often while paradoxically adopting the god’s language and symbols. Consequently, imitation and emulation are at times indistinguishable from polemics and subversion.

This study analyzes how two recent productions of the Bacchae in the USA—by the SITI Company and ... more This study analyzes how two recent productions of the Bacchae in the USA—by the SITI Company and the Classical Theatre of Harlem—activated Euripidean themes that confront the politics and rhetoric of Donald Trump. Through various interventions and adaptations, the ancient tragedy yields contemporary resonances: patriarchal control and authoritarianism are constructed and sustained by manufacturing threats posed by marauding bands of foreigners, even as the haunting denouement reveals that the most destructive perils reside within. In the drama as in Trump’s ascendency, political domination is pursued through performances that reorient illusion and reality.

Postscripts, 2022

The presidency of Donald Trump exposed and amplified dynamics long active in American religion. A... more The presidency of Donald Trump exposed and amplified dynamics long active in American religion. Although the overwhelming support of evangelical Christians took many by surprise due to his unconventional religious qualifications, scholars have increasingly established that this political alliance reflects numerous well-established commitments. Accordingly, this study analyzes the function of the Bible in the rhetoric of Trump’s Christian supporters. Among those surveyed, fundamentalist assumptions of biblical authority and inerrancy are held in common even while the exegetical techniques deployed diverge widely from the corresponding principles of “literal” interpretation and “original” meanings. Their tendencies are rather toward divinatory even quasi-magical appropriations of scriptural excerpts, practices attested in antiquity though less well known in American Christianity. For these political apologists, the Bible’s status approaches that of a ritual icon possessing spiritual power and conferring authority and legitimacy on those who wield it.

Philo of Alexandria speaks with fondness of his experience in the audience at ap erformance of Eu... more Philo of Alexandria speaks with fondness of his experience in the audience at ap erformance of Euripides, and throughout his corpus he quotes from this playwright on 21 occasions and from 10 different plays.Asawriter whose driving interest was the exposition of Jewish scriptures in conjunction with Hellenistic philosophy, Philo'sr epeatedr ecourset otragedy is noteworthya nd illustrative of his intellectual milieu. This studyw ill consider whya nd how Philo deploys Euripides. Most often, his quotations are gnomic sayingsand philosophicalproof texts which werecommon currencyamong contemporary writers.With respect to at least one drama, however, the satyr-play Syleus,P hilo engagesi namore extensive discussion of its context, producing astring of five fragments, four of which are unattested elsewhere. By surveying his use of Euripides, Iaim to make evident the extent to which Philo was dependent upon receivedp hilosophical and literary sources, along with moments of his own innovation as he reads Attic drama in connection with his distinctive Jewish religious commitments. At first glance, Philo of Alexandria and Euripides appeart oh avel ittle in common. They wered ivided by four centuries, inhabited separate continents,a nd identified with different religious traditions. Euripides' works wereperformed at Dionysiac festivals;h is plays both celebrate and interrogate the ideals of Greek religion and society;bycontrast,Philo'sprosetreatisesare steeped in Jewish thought and frequently engagei nt he exposition of authoritative scriptural texts.I ns ome other respects, however,the intellectual projects of Philo and Euripides converge. Both inherited established generic and literarym odels-dramatic conventions for Euripides, and accepted modes of biblical exegesis for Philo. Each adopted these, respectively,while at the sametime transformingthem in numerous and, at times, unexpected directions. And while their remarkable literary outputs had profound influences, the trajectory of their innovations werenot directlyrealized: Euripides is the lastofthe celebrated Attic playwrights, and Philo'sd istinctive approach to the Bible would largely not be taken up by his fellow Jews, though manye arlyC hristians would appropriate it. Additional similarities are evident.E uripides and Philo inheritedc orporao fl iterature consistingo fh eroic legends, whose meanings they probed and tested; for both, culturalo rm ythological heroes become, on occasion, vehicles for expressing contemporaryp hilosophical problems. Fori nstance,i nafragmento fE uripides' Chrysippus (fr.839 Kannicht), the chorus relatethe cosmological views of the philos

In depicting an apocalyptic expectation of the revelation of God's children (Rom 8.19–23), Paul p... more In depicting an apocalyptic expectation of the revelation of God's children (Rom 8.19–23), Paul personifies 'creation': awaiting the revelation of these children, she 'groans and suffers pains of childbirth.' While Paul's vision is framed with scriptural allusions, Greek and Roman images of Earth Mother also provide a relevant juxtaposition. This study recovers such a context by surveying sources ranging from Hesiod's Gaia to the Roman Terra Mater. Philo provides an especially relevant comparative model, as he relates biblical cosmology to Greek mythological sources and asserts that earth's role as mother is also attested in Genesis. In light of these comparisons, fresh insights emerge: maternal creation gives birth to a new divine era, yet for Paul this remains a future hope rather than a past (mythological) or present (political) occurrence.

In 1 Cor 4:9, Paul writes that God has “displayed” the apostles as condemned to death, “for we ha... more In 1 Cor 4:9, Paul writes that God has “displayed” the apostles as condemned to death, “for we have become a theater for the cosmos.” This is followed by three (ironic) antitheses contrasting the apostles, who were foolish, weak, and dishonored with the Corinthians as wise, strong, and honored. Interpretations of this metaphor of the theater have emphasized Roman spectacles of death as background to Paul’s depiction of apostolic adversity. Without denying the cultural significance of public displays of combat and execution, this study proposes a fresh perspective on Paul’s “theater” in view of tragic drama. As in 1 Cor, a central feature of many tragedies was the surprising downfall of those self-assured in their own wisdom and political power. Like his younger contemporary Epictetus, Paul evoked theatrical reversal to deflate the allure of human prestige, which, in his distinctly apocalyptic mode, would be nullified at the final judgment, deus ex machina.

In De ebrietate 150, Philo quotes Hesiod's Works and Days (287,[289][290][291][292] in his interp... more In De ebrietate 150, Philo quotes Hesiod's Works and Days (287,[289][290][291][292] in his interpretation of Hannah's alleged drunkenness in 1 Samuel. These poetic verses contrast the difficulty of the road to virtue with the ease of acquiring wickedness. On Philo's reading, the misperception of Hannah's "hard day" by her accuser illustrates the moral lesson of Hesiod, namely, that fools consider virtue to be beyond attainment. In the context of recent interest in the ways in which Philo's literary methods converge with those of other ancient readers, especially Alexandrian scholars, this study situates Philo's application of Hesiod's didactic poetry within its wider history of interpretation. As early as Plato and continuing through Philo's time, Hesiod's "two roads" was frequently cited in philosophical discourse and debate. Moreover, analogously to Philo, Alexandrian critics employed this passage in explaining the morality of literary characters. Philo's use of Hesiod is consistent with this interpretive tradition. At the same time, his originality consists in his creation of a dialogue between Hesiod and biblical narrative in which both voices converge around the same ethical lesson.

The Old Greek of 1 Sam. 1:11 includes a component of Hannah’s vow lacking in the MT: ‘wine and st... more The Old Greek of 1 Sam. 1:11 includes a component of Hannah’s vow lacking in the MT: ‘wine and strong drink [Samuel] shall not drink’.  The status of this phrase in the translator’s Vorlage is ultimately inconclusive: on the one hand, it is plausible that the translator inserted it under the influence of Hannah’s later assertion of her own sobriety (1:15) or in conformity to the Nazirite vow (e.g., Num. 6:2–5); on the other, its probable attestation in 4QSam provides an early Hebrew witness.  This paper explores the implications of this ‘plus’ as it relates to the moral and religious entailments of alcohol in ancient Judaism and Christianity, with particular attention to Philo of Alexandria and the Gospel of Luke.  The former takes this text as a test case in his treatment of the ethical question of whether the sage will get drunk.  In the latter, it provides a model for the asceticism of John the Baptist.  In both, however, abstinence from alcohol is subordinated to a higher spiritual ideal: ‘sober inebriation’ for Philo and the messianic banquet in Luke.

The divergence between the MT and LXX in Hannah’s response to Eli’s accusation ofdrunkenness (1 S... more The divergence between the MT and LXX in Hannah’s response to Eli’s accusation ofdrunkenness (1 Sam 1:15) has long puzzled scholars. The Greek phrase, “I am a woman who has a hard day (σκληρὰ ἡμέρα)”, is an improbable rendering of the Hebrew קשת
רוח (“hard of spirit”). This is commonly explained by way of a hypothetical Vorlage, קשת יום (lit., “hard of day”), which consequently becomes the preferred reading over against the MT. The central argument is that קשה would mean “obstinate” or “stubborn”,
which is not fitting for Hannah’s speech. This brief study problematizes this prevailing
view, arguing instead that the MT appropriately characterizes a misfortune perceived by
Hannah to be the result of God’s action.

Religious Studies Review , 2021

each contribution. Some chapters speak primarily to specialists, but there is a broader appeal to... more each contribution. Some chapters speak primarily to specialists, but there is a broader appeal to most. Brimming with new work by leading experts, this volume will have something to offer all readers interested in Roman religion, history, and politics.

Review of Biblical Literature, 2021

pp. 305-6), is arguable. In the opinion of the present reviewer, the quotation in CD is not neces... more pp. 305-6), is arguable. In the opinion of the present reviewer, the quotation in CD is not necessarily taken from Jubilees, but may refer to another work containing period chronologies. The fact is that with the exception of this problematic instance none of the non-biblical texts at Qumran cites Jubilees or the Temple Scroll, in contrast to the many quotations from proper biblical books. In chapter 16 (pp. 251-63), Ulrich gives his own assessment of the remains of seven biblical scrolls found at Masada. He points out that the general opinion that they all reflect a proto-Masoretic text should be qualified. In his view, there is no clear evidence to this effect, for the manuscripts of Genesis, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy from this site show slight disparate variants when compared with the MT. In his concluding remarks, Ulrich stresses that the Qumran biblical manuscripts demonstrate that the Hebrew MT, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Septuagint reflect older Hebrew texts circulating at the time, often stemming from variant versions and different editions than those of the MT (pp. 310-11). Ulrich closes his volume with a short survey of the current scholarly discussions on the meaning and significance of the Qumran data (pp. 314-16).