Postprandial hyperlipidemia, endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular risk: focus on incretins - Cardiovascular Diabetology
- ️Reaven, Peter D
- ️Thu Jul 07 2011
References
Yach D, Stuckler D, Brownell KD: Epidemiologic and economic consequences of the global epidemics of obesity and diabetes. Nat Med. 2006, 12 (1): 62-66. 10.1038/nm0106-62.
Haffner SM, Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, Pyorala K, Laakso M: Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1998, 339 (4): 229-234. 10.1056/NEJM199807233390404.
Kannel WB, McGee DL: Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The Framingham study. JAMA. 1979, 241 (19): 2035-2038. 10.1001/jama.241.19.2035.
Pan WH, Cedres LB, Liu K, Dyer A, Schoenberger JA, Shekelle RB, Stamler R, Smith D, Collette P, Stamler J: Relationship of clinical diabetes and asymptomatic hyperglycemia to risk of coronary heart disease mortality in men and women. Am J Epidemiol. 1986, 123 (3): 504-516.
Feskens EJ, Kromhout D: Glucose tolerance and the risk of cardiovascular disease: the Zutphen Study. J Clin Epidemiol. 1992, 45 (11): 1327-1334. 10.1016/0895-4356(92)90173-K.
Newman JM, DeStefano F, Valway SE, German RR, Muneta B: Diabetes-associated mortality in Native Americans. Diabetes Care. 1993, 16 (1): 297-299. 10.2337/diacare.16.1.297.
You RX, McNeil JJ, O'Malley HM, Davis SM, Thrift AG, Donnan GA: Risk factors for stroke due to cerebral infarction in young adults. Stroke. 1997, 28 (10): 1913-1918. 10.1161/01.STR.28.10.1913.
Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BEK: Risk Factors for Hospitalization in People With Diabetes. Arch Intern Med. 1999, 159 (17): 2053-2057. 10.1001/archinte.159.17.2053.
Selvin E, Marinopoulos S, Berkenblit G, Rami T, Brancati FL, Powe NR, Golden SH: Meta-analysis: glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 2004, 141 (6): 421-431.
Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, Reda D, Emanuele N, Reaven PD, Zieve FJ, Marks J, Davis SN, Hayward R, et al: Glucose Control and Vascular Complications in Veterans with Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009, 360 (2): 129-139. 10.1056/NEJMoa0808431.
The ACG: Intensive Blood Glucose Control and Vascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008, 358 (24): 2560-2572.
The Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study G: Effects of Intensive Glucose Lowering in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008, 358 (24): 2545-2559.
D'Agostino RB, Hamman RF, Karter AJ, Mykkanen L, Wagenknecht LE, Haffner SM: Cardiovascular disease risk factors predict the development of type 2 diabetes: the insulin resistance atherosclerosis study. Diabetes Care. 2004, 27 (9): 2234-2240. 10.2337/diacare.27.9.2234.
Feskens EJ, Kromhout D: Cardiovascular risk factors and the 25-year incidence of diabetes mellitus in middle-aged men. The Zutphen Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1989, 130 (6): 1101-1108.
Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, Mitchell BD, Patterson JK: Cardiovascular risk factors in confirmed prediabetic individuals. Does the clock for coronary heart disease start ticking before the onset of clinical diabetes?. JAMA. 1990, 263 (21): 2893-2898. 10.1001/jama.263.21.2893.
Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Haffner SM, Solomon CG, Willett WC, Manson JE: Elevated risk of cardiovascular disease prior to clinical diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2002, 25 (7): 1129-1134. 10.2337/diacare.25.7.1129.
Bianchi C, Miccoli R, Penno G, Del Prato S: Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in People With Dysglycemia. Diabetes Care. 2008, 31 (Supplement 2): S208-S214.
Fava S: Role of postprandial hyperglycemia in cardiovascular disease. Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy. 2008, 6 (6): 859-872. 10.1586/14779072.6.6.859.
Gerich JE: Clinical Significance, Pathogenesis, and Management of Postprandial Hyperglycemia. Arch Intern Med. 2003, 163 (11): 1306-1316. 10.1001/archinte.163.11.1306.
Milicevic Z, Raz I, Beattie SD, Campaigne BN, Sarwat S, Gromniak E, Kowalska I, Galic E, Tan M, Hanefeld M: Natural History of Cardiovascular Disease in Patients With Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2008, 31 (Supplement 2): S155-S160.
Stensvold I, Tverdal A, Urdal P, Graff-Iversen S: Non-fasting serum triglyceride concentration and mortality from coronary heart disease and any cause in middle aged Norwegian women. BMJ. 1993, 307 (6915): 1318-1322. 10.1136/bmj.307.6915.1318.
Tverdal A, Foss OP, Leren P, Holme I, Lund-Larsen PG, Bjartveit K: Serum Triglycerides as an Independent Risk Factor for Death from Coronary Heart Disease in Middle-aged Norwegian Men. Am J Epidemiol. 1989, 129 (3): 458-465.
Stampfer MJ, Krauss RM, Ma J, Blanche PJ, Holl LG, Sacks FM, Hennekens CH: A prospective study of triglyceride level, low-density lipoprotein particle diameter, and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 1996, 276 (11): 882-888. 10.1001/jama.276.11.882.
Nordestgaard BG, Benn M, Schnohr P, Tybjaerg-Hansen A: Nonfasting triglycerides and risk of myocardial infarction, ischemic heart disease, and death in men and women. JAMA. 2007, 298 (3): 299-308. 10.1001/jama.298.3.299.
Freiberg JJ, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, Jensen JS, Nordestgaard BG: Nonfasting Triglycerides and Risk of Ischemic Stroke in the General Population. JAMA. 2008, 300 (18): 2142-2152. 10.1001/jama.2008.621.
Eberly LE, Stamler J, Neaton JD: Relation of Triglyceride Levels, Fasting and Nonfasting, to Fatal and Nonfatal Coronary Heart Disease. Arch Intern Med. 2003, 163 (9): 1077-1083. 10.1001/archinte.163.9.1077.
Bansal S, Buring JE, Rifai N, Mora S, Sacks FM, Ridker PM: Fasting compared with nonfasting triglycerides and risk of cardiovascular events in women. JAMA. 2007, 298 (3): 309-316. 10.1001/jama.298.3.309.
Adiels M, Olofsson SO, Taskinen MR, Boren J: Overproduction of very low-density lipoproteins is the hallmark of the dyslipidemia in the metabolic syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008, 28 (7): 1225-1236. 10.1161/ATVBAHA.107.160192.
Proctor SD, Vine DF, Mamo JC: Arterial permeability and efflux of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins assessed by in situ perfusion and three-dimensional quantitative confocal microscopy. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004, 24 (11): 2162-2167. 10.1161/01.ATV.0000143859.75035.5a.
Haratz D, Stein O, Shwartz R, Berry EM, Stein Y: Preferential metabolism by macrophages of conditioned rabbit hypercholesterolemic remnant lipoproteins. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1988, 959 (2): 127-133.
Elsegood CL, Pal S, Roach PD, Mamo JC: Binding and uptake of chylomicron remnants by primary and THP-1 human monocyte-derived macrophages: determination of binding proteins. Clin Sci (Lond). 2001, 101 (2): 111-119. 10.1042/CS20010057.
Speidel MT, Booyse FM, Abrams A, Moore MA, Chung BH: Lipolyzed hypertriglyceridemic serum and triglyceride-rich lipoprotein cause lipid accumulation in and are cytotoxic to cultured human endothelial cells. High density lipoproteins inhibit this cytotoxicity. Thromb Res. 1990, 58 (3): 251-264. 10.1016/0049-3848(90)90095-T.
Domoto K, Taniguchi T, Takaishi H, Takahashi T, Fujioka Y, Takahashi A, Ishikawa Y, Yokoyama M: Chylomicron remnants induce monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression via p38 MAPK activation in vascular smooth muscle cells. Atherosclerosis. 2003, 171 (2): 193-200. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2003.08.016.
Lamon-Fava S, Herrington DM, Reboussin DM, Sherman M, Horvath KV, Cupples LA, White C, Demissie S, Schaefer EJ, Asztalos BF: Plasma Levels of HDL Subpopulations and Remnant Lipoproteins Predict the Extent of Angiographically-Defined Coronary Artery Disease in Postmenopausal Women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008, 28 (3): 575-579. 10.1161/ATVBAHA.107.157123.
Karpe F, Steiner G, Uffelman K, Olivecrona T, Hamsten A: Postprandial lipoproteins and progression of coronary atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 1994, 106 (1): 83-97. 10.1016/0021-9150(94)90085-X.
Nakamura T, Takano H, Umetani K, Kawabata K, Obata JE, Kitta Y, Kodama Y, Mende A, Ichigi Y, Fujioka D, et al: Remnant lipoproteinemia is a risk factor for endothelial vasomotor dysfunction and coronary artery disease in metabolic syndrome. Atherosclerosis. 2005, 181 (2): 321-327. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2005.01.012.
Nakajima K, Nakano T, Moon HD, Nagamine T, Stanhope KL, Havel PJ, Warnick GR: The correlation between TG vs remnant lipoproteins in the fasting and postprandial plasma of 23 volunteers. Clin Chim Acta. 2009, 404 (2): 124-127. 10.1016/j.cca.2009.03.051.
Ginsberg HN, Le NA, Goldberg IJ, Gibson JC, Rubinstein A, Wang-Iverson P, Norum R, Brown WV: Apolipoprotein B metabolism in subjects with deficiency of apolipoproteins CIII and AI. Evidence that apolipoprotein CIII inhibits catabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins by lipoprotein lipase in vivo. J Clin Invest. 1986, 78 (5): 1287-1295. 10.1172/JCI112713.
Zheng C, Khoo C, Ikewaki K, Sacks FM: Rapid turnover of apolipoprotein C-III-containing triglyceride-rich lipoproteins contributing to the formation of LDL subfractions. Journal of Lipid Research. 2007, 48 (5): 1190-1203. 10.1194/jlr.P600011-JLR200.
Kawakami A, Osaka M, Aikawa M, Uematsu S, Akira S, Libby P, Shimokado K, Sacks FM, Yoshida M: Toll-like receptor 2 mediates apolipoprotein CIII-induced monocyte activation. Circ Res. 2008, 103 (12): 1402-1409. 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.108.178426.
Sacks FM, Alaupovic P, Moye LA, Cole TG, Sussex B, Stampfer MJ, Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E: VLDL, apolipoproteins B, CIII, and E, and risk of recurrent coronary events in the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) trial. Circulation. 2000, 102 (16): 1886-1892.
Pilz S, Scharnagl H, Tiran B, Seelhorst U, Wellnitz B, Boehm BO, Schaefer JR, Marz W: Free Fatty Acids Are Independently Associated with All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality in Subjects with Coronary Artery Disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006, 91 (7): 2542-2547. 10.1210/jc.2006-0195.
Pirro M, Mauriège P, Tchernof A, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, Després JP, Lamarche B: Plasma free fatty acid levels and the risk of ischemic heart disease in men: prospective results from the Québec Cardiovascular Study. Atherosclerosis. 2002, 160 (2): 377-384. 10.1016/S0021-9150(01)00588-3.
Oliver MF: Prevention of ventricular fibrillation during acute myocardial ischemia: control of free fatty acids. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2001, 6 (3): 213-217. 10.1177/107424840100600301.
Tripathy D, Mohanty P, Dhindsa S, Syed T, Ghanim H, Aljada A, Dandona P: Elevation of Free Fatty Acids Induces Inflammation and Impairs Vascular Reactivity in Healthy Subjects. Diabetes. 2003, 52 (12): 2882-2887. 10.2337/diabetes.52.12.2882.
Gosmanov AR, Smiley DD, Robalino G, Siquiera J, Khan B, Le NA, Patel RS, Quyyumi AA, Peng L, Kitabchi AE, et al: Effects of oral and intravenous fat load on blood pressure, endothelial function, sympathetic activity, and oxidative stress in obese healthy subjects. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2010, 299 (6): E953-958. 10.1152/ajpendo.00469.2010.
Steinberg HO, Tarshoby M, Monestel R, Hook G, Cronin J, Johnson A, Bayazeed B, Baron AD: Elevated circulating free fatty acid levels impair endothelium-dependent vasodilation. J Clin Invest. 1997, 100 (5): 1230-1239. 10.1172/JCI119636.
Schwartz EA, Zhang WY, Karnik SK, Borwege S, Anand VR, Laine PS, Su Y, Reaven PD: Nutrient Modification of the Innate Immune Response: A Novel Mechanism by Which Saturated Fatty Acids Greatly Amplify Monocyte Inflammation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010, 30 (4): 802-808. 10.1161/ATVBAHA.109.201681.
Feletou M, Vanhoutte PM: Endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor: where are we now?. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006, 26 (6): 1215-1225. 10.1161/01.ATV.0000217611.81085.c5.
Nishimura Y, Usui H, Kurahashi K, Suzuki A: Endothelium-dependent contraction induced by acetylcholine in isolated rat renal arteries. Eur J Pharmacol. 1995, 275 (2): 217-221. 10.1016/0014-2999(95)00023-E.
Suwaidi JA, Hamasaki S, Higano ST, Nishimura RA, Holmes DR, Lerman A: Long-term follow-up of patients with mild coronary artery disease and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2000, 101 (9): 948-954.
Halcox JP, Schenke WH, Zalos G, Mincemoyer R, Prasad A, Waclawiw MA, Nour KR, Quyyumi AA: Prognostic value of coronary vascular endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2002, 106 (6): 653-658. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000025404.78001.D8.
Goodfellow J, Ramsey MW, Luddington LA, Jones CJ, Coates PA, Dunstan F, Lewis MJ, Owens DR, Henderson AH: Endothelium and inelastic arteries: an early marker of vascular dysfunction in non-insulin dependent diabetes. BMJ. 1996, 312 (7033): 744-745.
Steinberg HO, Chaker H, Leaming R, Johnson A, Brechtel G, Baron AD: Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction. Implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 1996, 97 (11): 2601-2610. 10.1172/JCI118709.
Vogel RA, Corretti MC, Plotnick GD: Effect of a single high-fat meal on endothelial function in healthy subjects. Am J Cardiol. 1997, 79 (3): 350-354. 10.1016/S0002-9149(96)00760-6.
Ceriello A, Taboga C, Tonutti L, Quagliaro L, Piconi L, Bais B, Da Ros R, Motz E: Evidence for an independent and cumulative effect of postprandial hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia on endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress generation: effects of short- and long-term simvastatin treatment. Circulation. 2002, 106 (10): 1211-1218. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000027569.76671.A8.
Kawano H, Motoyama T, Hirashima O, Hirai N, Miyao Y, Sakamoto T, Kugiyama K, Ogawa H, Yasue H: Hyperglycemia rapidly suppresses flow-mediated endothelium-dependent vasodilation of brachial artery. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999, 34 (1): 146-154. 10.1016/S0735-1097(99)00168-0.
Bae JH, Bassenge E, Lee HJ, Park KR, Park CG, Park KY, Lee MS, Schwemmer M: Impact of postprandial hypertriglyceridemia on vascular responses in patients with coronary artery disease: effects of ACE inhibitors and fibrates. Atherosclerosis. 2001, 158 (1): 165-171. 10.1016/S0021-9150(01)00408-7.
Anderson TJ, Uehata A, Gerhard MD, Meredith IT, Knab S, Delagrange D, Lieberman EH, Ganz P, Creager MA, Yeung AC, et al: Close relation of endothelial function in the human coronary and peripheral circulations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995, 26 (5): 1235-1241. 10.1016/0735-1097(95)00327-4.
Steinberg HO, Bayazeed B, Hook G, Johnson A, Cronin J, Baron AD: Endothelial dysfunction is associated with cholesterol levels in the high normal range in humans. Circulation. 1997, 96 (10): 3287-3293.
Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, Spiegelhalter DJ, Miller OI, Sullivan ID, Lloyd JK, Deanfield JE: Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet. 1992, 340 (8828): 1111-1115. 10.1016/0140-6736(92)93147-F.
Cosentino F, Luscher TF: Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1998, 32 (Suppl 3): S54-61.
Halcox JP, Donald AE, Ellins E, Witte DR, Shipley MJ, Brunner EJ, Marmot MG, Deanfield JE: Endothelial function predicts progression of carotid intima-media thickness. Circulation. 2009, 119 (7): 1005-1012. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.765701.
Gokce N, Keaney JF, Hunter LM, Watkins MT, Menzoian JO, Vita JA: Risk stratification for postoperative cardiovascular events via noninvasive assessment of endothelial function: a prospective study. Circulation. 2002, 105 (13): 1567-1572. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000012543.55874.47.
Heitzer T, Schlinzig T, Krohn K, Meinertz T, Munzel T: Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2001, 104 (22): 2673-2678. 10.1161/hc4601.099485.
Yeboah J, Crouse JR, Hsu FC, Burke GL, Herrington DM: Brachial flow-mediated dilation predicts incident cardiovascular events in older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation. 2007, 115 (18): 2390-2397. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678276.
Huang PH, Chen JW, Lu TM, Yu-An Ding P, Lin SJ: Combined use of endothelial function assessed by brachial ultrasound and high-sensitive C-reactive protein in predicting cardiovascular events. Clin Cardiol. 2007, 30 (3): 135-140. 10.1002/clc.20058.
Frick M, Weidinger F: Endothelial function: a surrogate endpoint in cardiovascular studies?. Curr Pharm Des. 2007, 13 (17): 1741-1750. 10.2174/138161207780831211.
Drucker DJ: The biology of incretin hormones. Cell Metab. 2006, 3 (3): 153-165. 10.1016/j.cmet.2006.01.004.
Kreymann B, Williams G, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR: Glucagon-like peptide-1 7-36: a physiological incretin in man. Lancet. 1987, 2 (8571): 1300-1304.
Holst JJ, Vilsboll T, Deacon CF: The incretin system and its role in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2009, 297 (1-2): 127-136. 10.1016/j.mce.2008.08.012.
Nauck MA, Heimesaat MM, Orskov C, Holst JJ, Ebert R, Creutzfeldt W: Preserved incretin activity of glucagon-like peptide 1 [7-36 amide] but not of synthetic human gastric inhibitory polypeptide in patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Invest. 1993, 91 (1): 301-307. 10.1172/JCI116186.
Willms B, Werner J, Holst JJ, Orskov C, Creutzfeldt W, Nauck MA: Gastric emptying, glucose responses, and insulin secretion after a liquid test meal: effects of exogenous glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)-(7-36) amide in type 2 (noninsulin-dependent) diabetic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996, 81 (1): 327-332. 10.1210/jc.81.1.327.
Naslund E, Barkeling B, King N, Gutniak M, Blundell JE, Holst JJ, Rossner S, Hellstrom PM: Energy intake and appetite are suppressed by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in obese men. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (3): 304-311. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800818.
Flint A, Raben A, Astrup A, Holst JJ: Glucagon-like peptide 1 promotes satiety and suppresses energy intake in humans. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 1998, 101 (3): 515-520. 10.1172/JCI990.
Qin X, Shen H, Liu M, Yang Q, Zheng S, Sabo M, D'Alessio DA, Tso P: GLP-1 reduces intestinal lymph flow, triglyceride absorption, and apolipoprotein production in rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2005, 288 (5): G943-949. 10.1152/ajpgi.00303.2004.
Meier JJ, Gethmann A, Gotze O, Gallwitz B, Holst JJ, Schmidt WE, Nauck MA: Glucagon-like peptide 1 abolishes the postprandial rise in triglyceride concentrations and lowers levels of non-esterified fatty acids in humans. Diabetologia. 2006, 49 (3): 452-458. 10.1007/s00125-005-0126-y.
Zander M, Madsbad S, Madsen JL, Holst JJ: Effect of 6-week course of glucagon-like peptide 1 on glycaemic control, insulin sensitivity, and [beta]-cell function in type 2 diabetes: a parallel-group study. The Lancet. 2002, 359 (9309): 824-830. 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07952-7.
Nauck M, Stockmann F, Ebert R, Creutzfeldt W: Reduced incretin effect in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes. Diabetologia. 1986, 29 (1): 46-52. 10.1007/BF02427280.
Toft-Nielsen MB, Damholt MB, Madsbad S, Hilsted LM, Hughes TE, Michelsen BK, Holst JJ: Determinants of the impaired secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 in type 2 diabetic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001, 86 (8): 3717-3723. 10.1210/jc.86.8.3717.
Rachman J, Barrow BA, Levy JC, Turner RC: Near-normalisation of diurnal glucose concentrations by continuous administration of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in subjects with NIDDM. Diabetologia. 1997, 40 (2): 205-211. 10.1007/s001250050664.
Toft-Nielsen MB, Madsbad S, Holst JJ: Continuous subcutaneous infusion of glucagon-like peptide 1 lowers plasma glucose and reduces appetite in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 1999, 22 (7): 1137-1143. 10.2337/diacare.22.7.1137.
Inzucchi SE, McGuire DK: New drugs for the treatment of diabetes: part II: Incretin-based therapy and beyond. Circulation. 2008, 117 (4): 574-584. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.735795.
Richter G, Feddersen O, Wagner U, Barth P, Goke R, Goke B: GLP-1 stimulates secretion of macromolecules from airways and relaxes pulmonary artery. Am J Physiol. 1993, 265 (4 Pt 1): L374-381.
Liu H, Hu Y, Simpson RW, Dear AE: Glucagon-like peptide-1 attenuates tumour necrosis factor-alpha-mediated induction of plasmogen activator inhibitor-1 expression. J Endocrinol. 2008, 196 (1): 57-65. 10.1677/JOE-07-0387.
Yu M, Moreno C, Hoagland KM, Dahly A, Ditter K, Mistry M, Roman RJ: Antihypertensive effect of glucagon-like peptide 1 in Dahl salt-sensitive rats. J Hypertens. 2003, 21 (6): 1125-1135. 10.1097/00004872-200306000-00012.
Basu A, Charkoudian N, Schrage W, Rizza RA, Basu R, Joyner MJ: Beneficial effects of GLP-1 on endothelial function in humans: dampening by glyburide but not by glimepiride. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007, 293 (5): E1289-1295. 10.1152/ajpendo.00373.2007.
Nystrom T, Gutniak MK, Zhang Q, Zhang F, Holst JJ, Ahren B, Sjoholm A: Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 on endothelial function in type 2 diabetes patients with stable coronary artery disease. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004, 287 (6): E1209-1215. 10.1152/ajpendo.00237.2004.
Ceriello A, Esposito K, Testa R, Bonfigli AR, Marra M, Giugliano D: The Possible Protective Role of Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 on Endothelium During the Meal and Evidence for an "Endothelial Resistance" to Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 in Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011, 34 (3): 697-702. 10.2337/dc10-1949.
Bose AK, Mocanu MM, Carr RD, Brand CL, Yellon DM: Glucagon-like Peptide 1 Can Directly Protect the Heart Against Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury. Diabetes. 2005, 54 (1): 146-151. 10.2337/diabetes.54.1.146.
Liu Q, Anderson C, Broyde A, Polizzi C, Fernandez R, Baron A, Parkes DG: Glucagon-like peptide-1 and the exenatide analogue AC3174 improve cardiac function, cardiac remodeling, and survival in rats with chronic heart failure. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2010, 9: 76-10.1186/1475-2840-9-76.
Read PA, Khan FZ, Dutka DP: Cardioprotection against ischaemia induced by dobutamine stress using glucagon-like peptide-1 in patients with coronary artery disease. Heart.
Kieffer TJ, McIntosh CH, Pederson RA: Degradation of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and truncated glucagon-like peptide 1 in vitro and in vivo by dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Endocrinology. 1995, 136 (8): 3585-3596. 10.1210/en.136.8.3585.
Blase E, Taylor K, Gao HY, Wintle M, Fineman M: Pharmacokinetics of an oral drug (acetaminophen) administered at various times in relation to subcutaneous injection of exenatide (exendin-4) in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2005, 45 (5): 570-577. 10.1177/0091270004274432.
Edwards CM, Stanley SA, Davis R, Brynes AE, Frost GS, Seal LJ, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR: Exendin-4 reduces fasting and postprandial glucose and decreases energy intake in healthy volunteers. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001, 281 (1): E155-161.
Egan JM, Clocquet AR, Elahi D: The insulinotropic effect of acute exendin-4 administered to humans: comparison of nondiabetic state to type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002, 87 (3): 1282-1290. 10.1210/jc.87.3.1282.
Kolterman OG, Buse JB, Fineman MS, Gaines E, Heintz S, Bicsak TA, Taylor K, Kim D, Aisporna M, Wang Y, et al: Synthetic exendin-4 (exenatide) significantly reduces postprandial and fasting plasma glucose in subjects with type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003, 88 (7): 3082-3089. 10.1210/jc.2002-021545.
Cervera A, Wajcberg E, Sriwijitkamol A, Fernandez M, Zuo P, Triplitt C, Musi N, DeFronzo RA, Cersosimo E: Mechanism of action of exenatide to reduce postprandial hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2008, 294 (5): E846-852. 10.1152/ajpendo.00030.2008.
Schwartz SL, Ratner RE, Kim DD, Qu Y, Fechner LL, Lenox SM, Holcombe JH: Effect of exenatide on 24-hour blood glucose profile compared with placebo in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, two-arm, parallel-group, placebo-controlled, 2-week study. Clin Ther. 2008, 30 (5): 858-867. 10.1016/j.clinthera.2008.05.004.
DeFronzo RA, Okerson T, Viswanathan P, Guan X, Holcombe JH, MacConell L: Effects of exenatide versus sitagliptin on postprandial glucose, insulin and glucagon secretion, gastric emptying, and caloric intake: a randomized, cross-over study. Curr Med Res Opin. 2008, 24 (10): 2943-2952. 10.1185/03007990802418851.
Klonoff DC, Buse JB, Nielsen LL, Guan X, Bowlus CL, Holcombe JH, Wintle ME, Maggs DG: Exenatide effects on diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular risk factors and hepatic biomarkers in patients with type 2 diabetes treated for at least 3 years. Curr Med Res Opin. 2008, 24 (1): 275-286.
Arakawa M, Mita T, Azuma K, Ebato C, Goto H, Nomiyama T, Fujitani Y, Hirose T, Kawamori R, Watada H: Inhibition of monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells and attenuation of atherosclerotic lesion by a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, exendin-4. Diabetes. 2010, 59 (4): 1030-1037. 10.2337/db09-1694.
Schwartz EA, Koska J, Mullin MP, Syoufi I, Schwenke DC, Reaven PD: Exenatide suppresses postprandial elevations in lipids and lipoproteins in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance and recent onset type 2 diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis. 2010, 212 (1): 217-222. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2010.05.028.
Koska J, Schwartz EA, Mullin MP, Schwenke DC, Reaven PD: Improvement of postprandial endothelial function after a single dose of exenatide in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance and recent-onset type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010, 33 (5): 1028-1030. 10.2337/dc09-1961.
Vella A, Bock G, Giesler PD, Burton DB, Serra DB, Saylan ML, Dunning BE, Foley JE, Rizza RA, Camilleri M: Effects of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibition on Gastrointestinal Function, Meal Appearance, and Glucose Metabolism in Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes. 2007, 56 (5): 1475-1480. 10.2337/db07-0136.
Salehi M, Vahl TP, D'Alessio DA: Regulation of islet hormone release and gastric emptying by endogenous glucagon-like peptide 1 after glucose ingestion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008, 93 (12): 4909-4916. 10.1210/jc.2008-0605.
Matikainen N, Manttari S, Schweizer A, Ulvestad A, Mills D, Dunning BE, Foley JE, Taskinen MR: Vildagliptin therapy reduces postprandial intestinal triglyceride-rich lipoprotein particles in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2006, 49 (9): 2049-2057. 10.1007/s00125-006-0340-2.
Hsieh J, Longuet C, Baker C, Qin B, Federico L, Drucker D, Adeli K: The glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor is essential for postprandial lipoprotein synthesis and secretion in hamsters and mice. Diabetologia. 2010, 53 (3): 552-561. 10.1007/s00125-009-1611-5.
Gaede P, Vedel P, Larsen N, Jensen GVH, Parving HH, Pedersen O: Multifactorial Intervention and Cardiovascular Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2003, 348 (5): 383-393. 10.1056/NEJMoa021778.
Bergenstal RM, Wysham C, MacConell L, Malloy J, Walsh B, Yan P, Wilhelm K, Malone J, Porter LE: Efficacy and safety of exenatide once weekly versus sitagliptin or pioglitazone as an adjunct to metformin for treatment of type 2 diabetes (DURATION-2): a randomised trial. The Lancet. 2010, 376 (9739): 431-439. 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60590-9.
Buse JB, Rosenstock J, Sesti G, Schmidt WE, Montanya E, Brett JH, Zychma M, Blonde L: Liraglutide once a day versus exenatide twice a day for type 2 diabetes: a 26-week randomised, parallel-group, multinational, open-label trial (LEAD-6). The Lancet. 2009, 374 (9683): 39-47. 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60659-0.
Diamant M, Van Gaal L, Stranks S, Northrup J, Cao D, Taylor K, Trautmann M: Once weekly exenatide compared with insulin glargine titrated to target in patients with type 2 diabetes (DURATION-3): an open-label randomised trial. The Lancet. 2010, 375 (9733): 2234-2243. 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60406-0.
Pratley RE, Nauck M, Bailey T, Montanya E, Cuddihy R, Filetti S, Thomsen AB, Søndergaard RE, Davies M: Liraglutide versus sitagliptin for patients with type 2 diabetes who did not have adequate glycaemic control with metformin: a 26-week, randomised, parallel-group, open-label trial. The Lancet. 2010, 375 (9724): 1447-1456. 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60307-8.
Ratner R, Han J, Nicewarner D, Yushmanova I, Hoogwerf BJ, Shen L: Cardiovascular safety of exenatide BID: an integrated analysis from controlled clinical trials in participants with type 2 diabetes. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2011, 10: 22-10.1186/1475-2840-10-22.
Williams-Herman D, Engel SS, Round E, Johnson J, Golm GT, Guo H, Musser BJ, Davies MJ, Kaufman KD, Goldstein BJ: Safety and tolerability of sitagliptin in clinical studies: a pooled analysis of data from 10,246 patients with type 2 diabetes. BMC Endocr Disord. 2010, 10: 7-10.1186/1472-6823-10-7.
Bloomgarden ZT: Glycemic Control in Diabetes: A Tale of Three Studies. Diabetes Care. 2008, 31 (9): 1913-1919. 10.2337/dc08-zb09.
Best JH, Hoogwerf BJ, Herman WH, Pelletier EM, Smith DB, Wenten M, Hussein MA: Risk of Cardiovascular Disease Events in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Prescribed the Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 (GLP-1) Receptor Agonist Exenatide Twice Daily or Other Glucose-Lowering Therapies. Diabetes Care. 2011, 34 (1): 90-95. 10.2337/dc10-1393.
Peskin BR, Shcheprov AV, Boye KS, Bruce S, Maggs DG, Gaebler JA: Cardiovascular outcomes associated with a new once-weekly GLP-1 receptor agonist versus traditional therapies for type 2 diabetes: A simulation analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab.