The East India Company, Famine and Ecological Conditions in Eighteenth-Century Bengal
Notes
M. Rangarajan and K. Sivaramakrishnan (2012), India’s Environmental History: from Ancient Times to the Colonial Period, Delhi: Permanent Black, p. 22.
Lance Brennan argues that behind the famine of 1896–97 in Nadia district in Bengal lay a series of ecological disasters from the drying up of some of the Ganges distributaries and the debility of the population caused by epidemics of malaria (linked to stagnant water from atrophying rivers and railway embankments) See Lance Brennan, Les Heathcote and Anton Lucas (1984), ‘The causation of famine: a comparative analyses of Lombok and Bengal, 1891–1974’, South Asia, 7(1): 1–26.
See Michelle Macalpin (1983), Subject to Famine: Food Crisis and Economic Change in Western India, 1860–1920, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
See David Ludden (1983), Peasant History in South India, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press and
Scarlett Epstein, ‘Productive efficiency and customary systems of rewards in rural south India’, in R. Firth (ed.) (1967), Themes in Economic Anthropology, London: Tavistock, pp. 229–52.
D. Clingingsmith and J. G. Williamson (2008), ‘Deindustrialization in 18th and 19th Century India: Mughal Decline, Climate Shocks and British Industrial Ascent’, Explorations in Economic History, 45(3): 209–234.
D. Kumar (ed.) (1982), Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 296.
Richard Grove (1998), ‘The East India Company, the Raj and El Niño: the critical role played by colonial scientists in establishing the mechanisms of global climate teleconnections, 1770–1930’, in R. Grove, V. Damodaran and S. Sangwan (eds.), Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 301–324.
Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: Elnino Famines and the Making of the Third World, London: Verso, 2001.
C. M. Agarwal (1983), Natural Calamities and the Great Mughals, Gaya, Patna: Kanchan Publications, p. 42.
John R. Mclane (1993), Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
See Irfan Habib (1997), ‘The eighteenth century in Indian economic history’, in P. J. Marshall (ed.), The Eighteenth Century in Indian History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 111.
Nicholas Dirks (2006), The Scandal of Empire: India and the Creation of Imperial Britain, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p. xiii.
D. Salmon (1913), Macaulay’s Essay on Warren Hastings, London: Longmans, p. 9.
P. Marshall (2006), Bengal the British Bridgehead, Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press, p. 3.
Chitta Panda (1996), The Decline of the Bengal Zamindars, Midnapore, 1870–1920, Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, p. 11. See also
B. B. Chaudhuri (1976), ‘Agricultural growth in Bengal and Bihar, 1770–1860’, Bengal Past and Present, 95(1): 290–340.
Letter from Select Committee to Court, 30 September 1765 quoted in Nandalal Chatterjee (1956), Bengal under the Diwani Administration, Allahabad: Indian Press.
C. V. Hill (1997), Rivers of Sorrow: Environment and Social Control in Riparian North India, 1770–1994, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Asian Studies.
Nani Gopal Chaudhuri (1970), Cartier, Governor of Bengal, 1769–1772, Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, p. 31.
W. W. Hunter (1872), Annals of Rural Bengal, London: Smith, Elder, p. 20.
Quoted in David Arnold, ‘Hunger in the garden of plenty, the Bengal famine of 1770’, in Alessa Johns (1999) Dreadful Visitations Confronting Natural Catastrophe in the Age of Enlightenment, New York: Routledge, p. 82. See also contemporary report by an anonymous Company official in Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle, vol. 41, sept. 1771, quoted in Mclane, Land Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal, p. 96.
Adam Smith (1930), An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, London: Strahan and Cadell.
Amartya Sen (1992), Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation, Oxford: Oxford University Press. See also
Mike Davies (2002), Late Victorian Holocausts, El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World, London: Verso, p. 19.
Alexander De Waal (1989), Famine that Kills: Dafur, Sudan1984–85, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 32–3.
Nirmal Sen Gupta (1980), ‘The indigenous irrigation system in south Bihar’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 17: 157–90.
V. Damodaran (1992), Broken Promises: Popular Protest, Indian Nationalism and the Congress Party in Bihar, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 76.
See Arnold, ‘Hunger in the garden of plenty’, and Paul Greenhough (1982), Prosperity and Misery in Rural Bengal, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 267–70.
Rajat Datta (1989), Some Notes on the Causation of Dearth and Famine in Late Eighteenth Century Bengal. London: SOAS workshop, p. 10.