Reassessing the Role of Parthia and Rome in the Origins of the First Romano-Parthian War (56/5–50 BCE)
- ️Nikolaus Leo Overtoom
- ️Mon Dec 20 2021
Abstract
This article reevaluates the origins of the First Romano-Parthian War (56/5–50 BCE) to better understand the different perspectives, policies, and objectives of the various Parthian and Roman leaders in the early and middle 50 s that helped forge the great rivalry that emerged between Parthia and Rome. This article breaks from the dominate Rome-centric, anti-Crassus traditions concerning the investigation of the origins of this conflict. Centuries of anti-Crassus propaganda have led most scholars to discount or overlook the critical agency of the Parthians in the conflict and the serious implications of Gabinius’ actions in 56–55, while blaming Crassus for indefensible Roman aggression and greed. The propensity of modern scholarship to villainize and criticize Crassus follows ancient propaganda and stems in part from a lack of understanding of the geopolitical realities that Parthia and Rome faced in the middle 50 s. Further, this article challenges the misguided traditions that, first, describe the Parthians as feeble, passive, and duplicitous in their interactions with foreign powers and, second, that blame the incompetence or weakness of the Parthians’ enemies to explain their actions and successes. Indeed, the Parthians were important, active, and powerful agents in these events, something often obscured or overlooked because of the inherent Roman focus and bias of the Graeco-Roman literary tradition and modern scholarship.
Alram, M. Nomina propria iranica in nummis. Vienna: Öst. Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1986. Search in Google Scholar Arnaud, P. “Le guerres parthiques de Gabinius et de Crassus et la politique occidentale des Parthes Arsacides entre 70 et 53 av. J.-C.” Electrum 2 (1998): 13–34.Search in Google Scholar Assar, G. “Genealogy and coinage of the early Parthian rulers II: a revised stemma.” Parthica 7 (2005a): 29–63.Search in Google Scholar Assar, G. “The genealogy of the Parthian King Sinatruces.” Journal of the Classical and Medieval Numismatic Society 6 (2005b): 16–33.Search in Google Scholar Assar, G. “A revised Parthian chronology of the period 165–91 BC.” Electrum 11 (2006a): 87–158.Search in Google Scholar Assar, G. “A revised Parthian chronology of the period 91–55 BC.” Parthica 8 (2006b): 55–104.Search in Google Scholar Assar, G. “Some remarks on the chronology and coinage of the Parthian ‘dark age.’” Electrum 15 (2009): 195–234.Search in Google Scholar Assar, G. “Iran under the Arsacids, 247 BC – AD 224/227.” In Numismatic Art of Persia, edited by B. Nelson, 113–171. Lancaster: Classical Numismatic Group, 2011. Search in Google Scholar Balakhvantsev, A. Political History of Early Parthia (Политическая история ранней Парфии). Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies, 2017.Search in Google Scholar Barnett, G. Emulating Alexander. Barnsley: Sword & Pen, 2017. Search in Google Scholar Bartlett, B. “Justin’s Epitome. The unlikely adaptation of Trogus’ World History.” Histos 8 (2014): 246–283.Search in Google Scholar Beck, M., editor. A Companion to Plutarch. Hoboken: Wiley, 2014.10.1002/9781118316450Search in Google Scholar Benjamin, C. The Yuezhi. Turnhout: Brepols, 2007.Search in Google Scholar Bishop, M. Lucius Verus and the Roman Defence of the East. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2018.Search in Google Scholar Bivar, A. “Gondophares and the Indo-Parthians.” In The Age of the Parthians, edited by V. Curtis and S. Stewart, 26–36. London: Tauris, 2007.Search in Google Scholar Bivar, A. “Kushan Dynasty i. Dynastic History.” Enc. Ir. (2009) 5 2021. <https://iranicaonline.org/articles/kushan-dynasty-i-history>. Search in Google Scholar Boyce, M. “Parthian writings and literature.” In Yarshater 1983, 1151–1165.10.1017/CHOL9780521246934.018Search in Google Scholar Brunt, P. The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays. Oxford: Clarendon, 1988.Search in Google Scholar Callataÿ, F., and Lorber, C. “The pattern of royal epithets on Hellenistic coinages.” In More than Men, Less than Gods, edited by P. Iossif, A, Chankowski, and C. Lorber, 417–455. Leuven: Peeters, 2011.Search in Google Scholar Callieri, P. “Sakas: In Afghanistan,” Enc. Ir. (2016) 4 2021. <https://iranicaonline.org/articles/sakas-in-afghanistan>.Search in Google Scholar Callieri, P. and A. Chaverdi. “Media, Khuzestan, and Fars between the end of the Achaemenids and the Rise of the Sasanians.” In Potts 2013, 690–717.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.013.0020Search in Google Scholar Campbell, B. “War and diplomacy: Rome and Parthia, 31 BC – AD 235.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by J. Rich and G. Shipley, 213–240. Abingdon: Routledge, 1993.10.4324/9781003071341-10Search in Google Scholar Casson, L. “The grain trade of the Hellenistic world.” TAPhA 85 (1954): 168–187.10.2307/283474Search in Google Scholar Casson, L. “The role of the state in Rome's grain trade.” MAAR 36 (1980): 21–33.10.2307/4238693Search in Google Scholar Chahin, M. The Kingdom of Armenia. London, New York: Croom Helm, 1987.Search in Google Scholar Chaumont, M. “Armenia and Iran II: the pre-Islamic Period.” Enc. Ir. (1986) 4 2020. <http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/armenia-ii>.Search in Google Scholar Colledge, M. The Parthians. London: Thames and Hudson, 1967.Search in Google Scholar Courtieu, G. “Vagises’ virtuous hand: an unforeseen note on Plutarch, Life of Crassus 18, 3.” Iranian Studies 51 (2018): 633–642.10.1080/00210862.2018.1460780Search in Google Scholar Dąbrowa, E. “Dall’autonomia alla dipendenza. Le città greche e gli Arsacidi nella prima metà del I secolo d.C.” Mesopotamia 29 (1994): 185–198.Search in Google Scholar Dąbrowa, E. “The political propaganda of the first Arsacids and its targets: from Arsaces I to Mithridates II.” Parthica 10 (2008/2009): 25–31.Search in Google Scholar Dąbrowa, E. “The Parthian kingship.” In Concepts of Kingship in Antiquity, edited by G. Lanfranchi and R. Rollinger, 123–134. Padova: SARGON, 2010.Search in Google Scholar Dąbrowa, E. Studia Graeco-Parthica. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011.Search in Google Scholar Dąbrowa, E. “The Arsacids and their state.” In Altertum und Gegenwart, edited by E. Curtis, 21–52. Innsbruck: Hansebooks, 2012.Search in Google Scholar Dąbrowa, E. “The Parthian aristocracy: its social [osition and social activity.” Parthica 15 (2013): 53–62.Search in Google Scholar Dąbrowa, E. “A troublesome vassal? Elymais and Parthia (141 BC – AD 228).” Parthica 16 (2014): 61–68.Search in Google Scholar Dąbrowa, E. “Sacral kingship in Parthia.” Studi Ellenistici 31 (2017): 287–296.Search in Google Scholar Daryaee, T. “Western and central Eurasia.” In Cambridge World History. Vol. 4, edited by C. Benjamin, 271–299. Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 2015.10.1017/CBO9781139059251.012Search in Google Scholar Debevoise, N. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1938.Search in Google Scholar Del Monte, G. Testi dalla Babilonia Ellenistica. Vol. 1. Pisa: Ist. ed. e polig. int., 1997.Search in Google Scholar Dilmaghani, J. “Parthian coins from Mithridates II of Parthia to Orodes II.” Num. Chron. 146 (1986): 216–224.Search in Google Scholar Dressel, H. “Ein Tetradrachmon des Arsakiden Mithridates III.” Zeitschrift für Numismatik 33 (1922): 156–177.Search in Google Scholar Duff, T. Plutarch’s Lives. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2002.Search in Google Scholar Eckstein, A. Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome. Berkeley: University of California, 2006.10.1525/9780520932302Search in Google Scholar Edwell, P. “The Euphrates as a boundary between Rome and Parthia in the late Republic and early Empire.” In Culture, Identity and Politics in the Ancient Mediterranean World, edited by P. Burton, 191–206. Canberra: Australasian Society for Classical Studies, 2013.10.1017/S0066477400000332Search in Google Scholar Ellerbrock, U. The Parthians. Abingdon: Routledge, 2021.10.4324/9781003038559Search in Google Scholar Ellerbrock, U. and S. Winkelmann. Die Parther. Darmstadt: Philipp von Zabern, 2012.Search in Google Scholar Engels, D. Benefactors, Kings, Rulers. Leuven: Peeters, 2017.Search in Google Scholar Enoki, K., G. Koshelenko, and Z. Haidary. “The Yueh-chih and their migrations.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, edited by A. Dani and J. Harmatta, 171–190. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999.Search in Google Scholar Fantham, E. “The trials of Gabinius in 54 BC.” Hist. 24 (1975): 425–443.Search in Google Scholar Fournie, D. “Harsh lessons: Roman intelligence in the Hannibalic War.” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 17 (2004): 502–538.10.1080/08850600490252704Search in Google Scholar Fratantuono, L. Roman Conquests. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2019.Search in Google Scholar Frye, R. “Parthian and Sasanian history of Iran.” In Mesopotamia and Iran in the Parthian and Sasanian Periods, edited by J. Curtis, 17–22. London: British Museum, 2000.Search in Google Scholar Garnsey, P. and D. Rathbone. “The background to the grain law of Gaius Gracchus.” JRS 75 (1985): 20–25.10.2307/300649Search in Google Scholar Garsoian, N. “Tigran II.” Enc. Ir. (2005) 4 2020. <http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tigran-ii>.Search in Google Scholar Geraghty, R. “The impact of globalization in the Roman Empire, 200 BC-AD 100,” Journal of Economic History 67 (2007): 1036–1061.10.1017/S0022050707000484Search in Google Scholar George, A. Babylonian Typographical Texts. Leuven: Peeters, 1992.Search in Google Scholar Goldsworthy, A. Pax Romana. New Haven: Yale U. P., 2016.Search in Google Scholar Goodyear, E. “On the character and text of Justin’s compilation of Trogus.” In F. R. D. Goodyear Papers on Latin Literature, edited by K. Coleman, et al., 210–233. London: Duckworth, 1992.Search in Google Scholar Grainger, J. Rome, Parthia, India. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2013.Search in Google Scholar Grainger, J. The Rise of the Seleukid Empire (323–223 BC). Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2014.Search in Google Scholar Grainger, J. The Fall of the Seleukid Empire 187–75 BC. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2016.Search in Google Scholar Grajetzki, W. Greeks and Parthians in Mesopotamia and Beyond 331 BC – 224 AD. London: Bristol Classical, 2011.10.5040/9781472540720Search in Google Scholar Graslin-Thomé, L. “La Babylonie hellénistique: le point de vue des <<dominés>>.” In Communautés locales et pouvoir central dans l’Orient hellénistique et romain, edited by C. Feyel, et al., 237–258. Nancy: ADRA, 2012.Search in Google Scholar Gregoratti, L. “The journey east of the Great King: East and West in the Parthian kingdom.” Parthica 15 (2013): 43–63.Search in Google Scholar Gregoratti, L. “A tale of two Great Kings: Artabanus and Vologaeses.” In Studies on the Iranian World I, edited by A. Krasnowolska, 203–210. Krakow: Jagiellonian U. P., 2015.Search in Google Scholar Gregoratti, L. “Parthian Empire.” In The Encyclopedia of Empire, edited by J. MacKenzie, 1–6. Hoboken: Wiley, 2016 a.10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe186Search in Google Scholar Gregoratti, L. “Legendary and real wealth in the Arsacid kingdom.” In Studies on Wealth in the Ancient World, edited by F. Santangelo and E. Bissa, 83–92. London: Institute of Classical Studies, 2016 b.Search in Google Scholar Gregoratti, L. “Sinews of the other empire: the Parthian Great King’s rule over vassal kingdoms.” In Sinews of Empire, edited by H. Terigon and E. Seland, 95–104. Oxford: Oxbow, 2017 a.Search in Google Scholar Gregoratti, L. “The Arsacid Empire.” In King of the Seven Climes), edited by T. Daryaee, 125–153. Leiden: Brill, 2017 b.10.1163/9789004460645_008Search in Google Scholar Gruen, E. The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome. Berkeley: University of California, 1984.10.1525/9780520351233Search in Google Scholar Gruen, E. “Josephus’ image of the Parthians.” In Wiesehöfer and Müller 2017, 223–240.10.2307/j.ctvckq3np.12Search in Google Scholar Hackl, U., B. Jacobs and D. Weber, editors. Quellen zur Geschichte des Partherreiches. Vol. 2. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2010 a.Search in Google Scholar Hackl, U., B. Jacobs and D. Weber, editors. Quellen zur Geschichte des Partherreiches. Vol. 3. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2010 b.Search in Google Scholar Hansman, J. “Elymais.” Enc. Ir. (1998) 4 2020. <http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elymais>.Search in Google Scholar Hartmann, U. “Das Bild der Parther bei Plutarch.” Hist. 56 (2008): 426–452.10.25162/historia-2008-0023Search in Google Scholar Haubold, J. “Hellenism, cosmopolitanism and the role of Babylonian elites in the Seleucid Empire.” In Cosmopolitanism and Empire, edited by M. Lavan, et al., 89–102. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2016.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190465667.003.0004Search in Google Scholar Hauser, S. “The Arsacids (Parthians).” In Potts 2013, 728–750.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.013.0052Search in Google Scholar Isaac, B. The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton: Princeton U. P., 2006.Search in Google Scholar Kallet-Marx, R. Hegemony to Empire. Berkeley: University of California, 1995.Search in Google Scholar Karras-Klapproth, M. Prosopographische Studien zur Geschichte des Partherreiches auf der Grundlage antiker literarischer Überlieferung. Bonn: Habelt, 1988.Search in Google Scholar Keall, E. “Qal’eh-i Yazdigird, a Sasanian palace stronghold in Persian Kurdistan.” Iran 5 (1967): 99–121. 10.2307/4299591Search in Google Scholar Keall, E. “Parthian Nippur and Vologases’ southern strategy: a hypothesis.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 95 (1975): 620–632.10.2307/601018Search in Google Scholar Keall, E. “Political economic and social factors on the Parthian landscape of Mesopotamia and western Iran: evidence from two case studies.” In Mountains and Lowlands, edited by L. Young, et al., 81–89. Malibu: Undena, 1977 a.Search in Google Scholar Keall, E. “Qal’eh-i Yazdigird: the question of its date.” Iran 15 (1977b): 1–9.10.2307/4300560Search in Google Scholar Keall, E. “Qal’eh-i Yazdigird: an overview of the monumental architecture.” Iran 20 (1982): 51–72.10.2307/4299721Search in Google Scholar Keall, E. “How many kings did the Parthian King of Kings rule?” IrAnt 29 (1994): 254–272.10.2143/IA.29.0.630135Search in Google Scholar Keaveney, A. “Roman treaties with Parthia c. 95 – c. 64 BC.” AJPh 102 (1981): 195–212.10.2307/294311Search in Google Scholar Keaveney, A. “The king and the war-lords: Romano-Parthian relations ca. 64–53 BC.” AJPh 103 (1982): 412–428.10.2307/294519Search in Google Scholar Kleiner, D. “Semblance and storytelling in Augustan Rome.” In The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus, edited by K. Galinsky, 197–233. Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 2005.10.1017/CCOL0521807964.010Search in Google Scholar Lamberton, R. Plutarch. New Haven: Yale U. P., 2001.Search in Google Scholar Lerner, J. “Regional study: Baktria – the crossroads of ancient Eurasia.” In Cambridge World History. Vol. 4, edited by C. Benjamin, 300–324. Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 2015.10.1017/CBO9781139059251.013Search in Google Scholar Lerner, J. “Mithridates I and the Parthian archer.” In Arsacids, Romans and Local Elites, edited by B. Rubin and J. Schlude, 1–24. Oxford: Oxbow, 2017.Search in Google Scholar Lerouge-Cohen, C. “Les guerres parthiques de Démétrios II et Antiochos VII dans les sources gréco-romaines, de Posidonios à Trogue/Justin.” Journal des Savants 2 (2005): 217–252.10.3406/jds.2005.1694Search in Google Scholar Lerouge-Cohen, C. L’image des Parthes dans le monde gréco-romain: du début du Ier siècle av. J.-C. jusqu'à la fin du Haut-Empire romain. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2007.Search in Google Scholar Lerouge-Cohen, C. “Les livres 41–42 des Histoires Philippiques de Trogue-Pompée résumées par Justin.” IrAnt 44 (2009a): 361–392.10.2143/IA.44.0.2034382Search in Google Scholar Lerouge-Cohen, C. “L’image des Parthes à l’époque d’Auguste: tentative de confrontation des sources littéraires et iconographiques.” In Figures de l’étranger autour de la Méditerranée antique “à la rencontre de l’Autre’, edited by J. Gallego, et al., 295–303. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009 b.Search in Google Scholar Lerouge-Cohen, C. “Les Parthes sont-ils des nomads comme les autres?” In Portraits de migrants, portraits de colons II, edited by P. Rouillard, 161–168. Paris: De Boccard, 2010.Search in Google Scholar Lerouge-Cohen, C. “Le banquet des Arsacides d’après les sources grecques.” In Le banquet du monarque dans le monde antique, edited by C. Grandjean, et al., 275–289. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2013.10.4000/books.pufr.23312Search in Google Scholar Lerouge-Cohen, C., editor. Les Arsacides, héritiers des Séleucides? Paris: Université Paris Nanterre, 2014.Search in Google Scholar Lerouge-Cohen, C. “L’image des Parthes chez Arrien. Réflxions sur quelques fragments attribués aux Parthika.” In Wiesehöfer and Müller 2017.10.2307/j.ctvckq3np.15Search in Google Scholar Lindsay, J. A View of the History and Coinage of the Parthians. Cork: John Crowe, 1852.Search in Google Scholar Luther, A. “Medo nectis catenas? Die expedition des Aelius Gallus in Rahmen der augusteischen Partherpolitik.” Orbis Terrarum 5 (1999): 157–182.Search in Google Scholar Mair, V., editor. A Concise Commentary on Memoirs on the Western Regions in the Official Histories of the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties. Trans. by Y. Taishan. Beijing: Commercial, 2014.Search in Google Scholar Manandyan, H. Tigranes II and Rome. Trans. by G. Bournoutian. Costa Mesa: Mazda, 1940.Search in Google Scholar Marciak, M. “The historical geography of Gordyene. Part 1: Classical sources.” Anabasis 3 (2012): 173–213.Search in Google Scholar Marciak, M. “The historical geography of Gordyene. Part 2: oriental sources.” Anabasis 4 (2013): 149–159.Search in Google Scholar Marciak, M. Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene. Leiden: Brill, 2017.10.1163/9789004350724Search in Google Scholar Marek, C. “Die Expedition des Aelius Gallus nach Arabien im Jahre 25 v. Chr.” Chiron 43 (1993): 121–156.Search in Google Scholar Marshall, B. Crassus. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1976.Search in Google Scholar McEwan, G. “A Parthian campaign against Elymais in 77 BC.” Iran 24 (1986): 91–94.10.2307/4299767Search in Google Scholar McLaughlin, R. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2016.Search in Google Scholar Mineo, B. and G. Zecchini, Abrégé des Histoires Philippiques de Trogue Pompée. Tome I. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2016.Search in Google Scholar Mommsen, T. History of Rome. Vols. 3–5. Trans. by W. Dickson. London: British Library, 1856.Search in Google Scholar Mørkholm, O. “The Parthian coinage of Seleucia on the Tigris, c. 90–55 BC.” Num. Chron. 20 (1980): 33–47.Search in Google Scholar Müller, S. “Das Bild der Parther bei Trogus-Justin.” In Wiesehöfer and Müller 2017, 241–258.10.2307/j.ctvckq3np.13Search in Google Scholar Ňaco del Hoyo, T. “Roman and Pontic intelligence strategies: politics and war in the time of Mithradates VI.” War in History 21 (2014): 401–421.10.1177/0968344513505528Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. “Parthian king’s tiara – numismatic evidence and some aspects of Arsacid political Ideology.” Notae Numismaticae/Zapiski Numizmatyczne 2 (1997): 27–65.Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. Parthia et ulteriores gentes. Munich: Tuduv, 1998.Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. “The early reign of Mithradates II the Great in Parthia.” Anabasis 1 (2010): 144–158.Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. “Eastern Baktria under Da Yuezhi hegemony.” In Glory of the Kushans, edited by V. Jayaswal, 79–86. New Delhi: Aryan, 2012.Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. “The sacral kingship of the early Arsacids I. Fire cult and kingly glory.” Anabasis 7 (2016): 91–106.Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. “Greeks in the Arsacid Empire.” In Wiesehöfer and Müller 2017, 3–28.10.2307/j.ctvckq3np.4Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. “Orodes II.” Enc. Ir. (2021a) 4 2021. <https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/orodes-ii-COM_336463>.Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. “Phraates IV.” Enc. Ir. (2021b) 4 2021. <https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/phraates-iv-COM_336464>.Search in Google Scholar Olbrycht, M. Early Arsakid Parthia (ca. 250–165 BC). Leiden: Brill, 2021 c.10.1163/9789004460768Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “Contesting the greatness of Alexander the Great: the representation of Alexander in the histories of Polybius and Livy.” MA Thesis, University of Maryland. 2011.Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “A Roman tradition of Alexander the Great counterfactual history.” Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 52 (2012): 203–212.10.1556/AAnt.52.2012.3.2Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “Six Polybian themes concerning Alexander the Great.” CW 106 (2013): 571–593.10.1353/clw.2013.0094Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “The power-transition crisis of the 240 s and the creation of the Parthian state.” International History Review 38 (2016a): 984–1013.10.1080/07075332.2016.1140669Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “The rivalry of Rome and Parthia in the sources from the Augustan age to Late Antiquity.” Anabasis 7 (2016b): 137–174.Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “Challenging Roman domination: the end of Hellenistic rule and the rise of the Parthian state from the third to the first centuries.” PhD Diss., Louisiana State University. 2016 c.Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “The Parthian rival and Rome’s failure in the East: Roman propaganda and the stain of Crassus.” Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 57 (2017a): 415–435.10.1556/068.2017.57.4.4Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “The Parthians’ unique mode of warfare: a tradition of Parthian militarism and the Battle of Carrhae.” Anabasis 8 (2017b): 99–122.Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “The power-transition crisis of the 160s–130s BCE and the formation of the Parthian Empire.” Journal of Ancient History 7 (2019a): 111–155.10.1515/jah-2018-0024Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “A reconsideration of Mithridates II’s early reign: a savior restores the eastern frontier of the Parthian Empire.” Parthica 21: 43–55 (2019b).Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “Considering the failures of the Parthians against the invasions of the central Asian tribal confederations in the 120 s BCE.” StIr 48 (2019c): 77–111.Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. Reign of Arrows. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2020 a.10.1093/oso/9780190888329.001.0001Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “The Parthians’ failed vassalage of Syria: the shortsighted western policy of Phraates II and the second reign of Demetrius II (129–125 BCE).” Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 60 (2020b): 1–14.10.1556/068.2020.00003Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “A fight to reclaim the Ccntral Asian frontier: the Seleucid and Parthian rivalry in the 230 s BC.” Studia Hercynia 26 (2021a) [forthcoming].Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “Patricide, fratricide, and betrayal: the role of Parthia in the first war with Rome.” In Brill’s Companion to War in Ancient Iran, edited by J. Hyland and K. Rezakhani. Leiden: Brill, 2021 b [forthcoming].Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “Considering the Parthian army, its logistics, and the challenges the Seleucids faced in fighting it.” In Brill’s Companion to Food and Drink in the Armies of Ancient Greece and Rome, edited by J. Donahue and L. Brice. Leiden: Brill, 2022 a [forthcoming].Search in Google Scholar Overtoom, N. “The Parthian Empire in Josephus’s writings.” In The Oxford Handbook of Josephus, edited by K. Atkinson. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2022 b [forthcoming].Search in Google Scholar Pelling, C. Plutarch and History. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales, 2011.10.2307/j.ctvvnbp5Search in Google Scholar Perley, S. “Arcana imperii: Roman political intelligence, counterintelligence, and covert action in the Mid-Republic.” PhD Thesis, Australian National University. 2016.Search in Google Scholar Poirot, J. “The Romano-Parthian cold war: Julio-Claudian foreign policy in the first century CE and Tacitus’ Annales.” PhD Diss., Louisiana State University. 2014.Search in Google Scholar Popov-Reynolds, N. “Justin, Roman Historian.” In Encyclopedia of Ancient History, edited by R. Bagnall, et al., 3666–3667. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah08096Search in Google Scholar Potter, D. “The transformation of the empire: 235–337 CE.” In A Companion to the Roman Empire, edited by D. Potter, 153–174. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.10.1002/9780470996942.ch9Search in Google Scholar Potts, D., editor. Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2013.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.001.0001Search in Google Scholar Rawlinson, G. The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. Vol. 3. 1876. (Repr. ed. Piscataway: Gorgias, 2004.) 10.31826/9781463209520Search in Google Scholar Rezakhani, K. “Arsacid, Elymaean, and Persid coinage.” In Potts 2013, 766–778.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.013.0012Search in Google Scholar Rezakhani, K. “From Aramaic to Pahlavi: epigraphic observations based on the Persis coin series.” In The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires, edited by T. Daryaee, 69–75. Oxford: Oxbow, 2016.10.2307/j.ctvh1dkb6.12Search in Google Scholar Rickman, G. “The grain trade under the Roman Empire.” MAAR 36 (1980): 261–275.10.2307/4238709Search in Google Scholar Rowland, R. “The ‘very poor’ and the grain dole at Rome and Oxyrhynchus.” ZPE 21 (1976): 69–73.Search in Google Scholar Rtveladze, E. “Parthians in the Oxus valley: struggle for the Great Indian Road.” Anabasis 2 (2011): 149–178.Search in Google Scholar Sachs, A. Late Babylonian Astronomical and Related Texts. Providence: Brown U. P., 1955.Search in Google Scholar Sachs, A. and H. Hunger. Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia: diaries from 652 BC to 262 BC. Vienna: Öst. Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1988.Search in Google Scholar Sachs, A. and H. Hunger. Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia: diaries from 261 BC to 165 BC. Vienna: Öst. Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1989.Search in Google Scholar Sachs, A. and H. Hunger. Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia: diaries from 164 BC to 61 BC. Vienna: Öst. Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1996.Search in Google Scholar Sampson, G. The Defeat of Rome. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2015.Search in Google Scholar Sampson, G. Rome and Parthia. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2020.Search in Google Scholar Sartre, M. The Middle East Under Rome. Trans. by C. Porter and E. Rawlings. Cambridge: Harvard U. P., 2005.Search in Google Scholar Schippmann, K. “Arsacids ii. The Arsacid dynasty.” Enc. Ir. (1987a) 4 2020. <http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arsacids-ii>.Search in Google Scholar Schippmann, K. “Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic history.” Enc. Ir. (1987b) 4 2020. <http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-iii>.Search in Google Scholar Schlude, J. “Rome, Parthia, and empire: the first century of Roman-Parthian relations.” PhD Diss., University of California. 2009.Search in Google Scholar Schlude, J. “The early Parthian policy of Augustus.” Anabasis 6 (2015): 139–156.Search in Google Scholar Schlude, J. Rome, Parthia, and the Politics of Peace. Abingdon: Routledge, 2020.10.4324/9781351135719Search in Google Scholar Seager, R. Pompey the Great. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.10.1002/9780470773420Search in Google Scholar Sellwood, D. An Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia. London: Spink and Son, 1971.Search in Google Scholar Sellwood, D. “The drachms of the Parthian ‘dark age.’” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1976): 2–25.10.1017/S0035869X00132988Search in Google Scholar Sellwood, D. An Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia. London: Spink and Son, 1980.Search in Google Scholar Sellwood, D. “Parthian coins.” In Yarshater 1983, 279–298.10.1017/CHOL9780521200929.010Search in Google Scholar Shahbazi, A. “Carrhae.” Enc. Ir. (1990) 4 2020. <http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carrhae-harran-town-in-mesopotamia-where-in-may-53-b>.Search in Google Scholar Shayegan, M. Arsacids and Sasanians. Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 2011.Search in Google Scholar Sheldon, R. Rome’s Wars in Parthia. London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2010.Search in Google Scholar Sherwin-White, A. Roman Foreign Policy in the East 168 BC to AD 1. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1984.Search in Google Scholar Sherwin-White, S. and A. Kuhrt. From Samarkhand to Sardis. Berkeley: University of California, 1993.Search in Google Scholar Siani-Davies, M. “Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans.” Hist. 46 (1997): 306–340.Search in Google Scholar Simonetta, A. “Notes on the Parthian and Indo-Parthian issues of the first century BC.” In Actes du congrès international de numismatique. Vol. 2, edited by J. Babelon and J. Lafaurie, 111–121. Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, 1953–1957.Search in Google Scholar Simonetta, A. “Some remarks on the Arsacid coinage of the Period 90–57 BC.” Num. Chron. 7 (1966): 15–40.10.1111/j.1438-8677.1966.tb00212.xSearch in Google Scholar Simonetta, A. “A proposed revision of the attributions of the Parthian coins struck during the so-called “dark age” and its historical significance.” East & West 52 (2001): 69–108.Search in Google Scholar Stadter, P., editor. Plutarch and the Historical Tradition. New York: Routledge, 2011.Search in Google Scholar Stadter, P. Plutarch and His Roman Readers. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2015.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198718338.001.0001Search in Google Scholar Stevens, K. “Empire begins at home: local elites and imperial ideologies in Hellenistic Greece and Babylonia.” In Cosmopolitanism and Empire, edited by M. Lavan, et al., 65–88. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2016.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190465667.003.0003Search in Google Scholar Stone, A. “Crassus, Marcus Licinius.” In Encyclopedia of Ancient History edited by R. Bagnall, et al., 1824–1826. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20153Search in Google Scholar Suren-Pahlav, S. “General Surena, the hero of Carrhae.” Iran Chamber Society (2019) 4 2021. <https://www.iranchamber.com/history/surena/surena.php>Search in Google Scholar Syme, R. Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 1958.Search in Google Scholar Syvänne, I. Caracalla. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2017.Search in Google Scholar Tao, W. “Parthia in China: a re-examination of the historical records.” In The Age of the Parthians, edited by V. Curtis and S. Stewart, 87–104. London: Tauris, 2007.Search in Google Scholar Timpe, D. “Die Bedeutung der Schlacht von Carrhae.” Museum Helveticum 19 (1962): 104–129.Search in Google Scholar Valverde, L. “Algunas novedades sobre numismática parta desde Fraates II a Orodes II (132–38 a.C.).” Gaceta Numismática 193 (2017): 111–128.Search in Google Scholar van de Mieroop, M. “Gutians.” Enc. Ir. (2002) 4 2021. <https://iranicaonline.org/articles/gutians>.Search in Google Scholar Vogt, J. “Die Tochter des Grosskönigs und Pausanias, Alexander, Caracalla.” In Gesetz und Handlungsfreiheit in der Geschichte, edited by J. Vogt, 55–80. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1955.Search in Google Scholar Ward, A. Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic. Columbia: Columbia U. P., 1977.Search in Google Scholar Warry, J. Warfare in the Classical World. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1995.Search in Google Scholar Wheatley, P. and W. Heckel, edtiors. Justin. Vol. II: Books 13–15. Trans. by J. Yardley. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2012.Search in Google Scholar Wheeler, E. “Roman treaties with Parthia: Völkerrecht or power politics.” In Limes XVIII, edited by P. Freeman, 287–292. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2002.Search in Google Scholar Widengren, G. “Sources of Parthian and Sasanian history.” In Yarshater 1983, 1261–1283.10.1017/CHOL9780521246934.026Search in Google Scholar Wiesehöfer, J., editor. Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse. Stuggart: Franz Steiner, 1998.Search in Google Scholar Wiesehöfer, J. “Iranian empires.” In Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, edited by W. Scheidel and P. Bang, 199–233. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2016.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.013.0008Search in Google Scholar Wiesehöfer, J. and S. Müller, editors. Parthika. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017.Search in Google Scholar Williams, R. “Rei publicae causa: Gabinius’ defense of his restoration of Ptolemy Auletes.” CJ 81 (1985): 25–38.Search in Google Scholar Wolski, J. “The decay of the Iranian empire of the Seleucids and the chronology of the Parthian beginnings.” Berytus 12 (1956–1957): 35–52.Search in Google Scholar Wolski, J. “Die gesellschaftliche und politische Stellung der großen partischen Familien.” Tyche 4 (1989): 221–227.10.15661/tyche.1989.004.19Search in Google Scholar Wolski, J. Seleucid and Arsacid Studies. Krakow: Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2003.Search in Google Scholar Yardley, J. Justin and Pompeius Trogus. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2003.10.3138/9781442676473Search in Google Scholar Yardley, J. and R. Develin, Justin. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 1994.Search in Google Scholar Yardley, J. and W. Heckel, editors. Justin. Vol. 1: Books 11-12. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 1997.Search in Google Scholar Yardley, J., W. Heckel and P. Wheatley, editors. Justin. Vol. 2: Books 13–15. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2011.Search in Google Scholar Yarrow, L. Historiography at the End of the Republic. Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2006.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199277544.001.0001Search in Google Scholar Yarshater, E., editor. Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 3.1. Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1983.10.1017/CHOL9780521200929Search in Google ScholarBibliography
Published Online: 2021-11-27
Published in Print: 2021-11-27
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston