Bitcoin, the Glossary
Bitcoin (abbreviation: BTC; sign: ₿) is the first decentralized cryptocurrency.[1]
Table of Contents
252 relations: Abstraction layer, Adam Back, Administrative division, Anarchism, Anti-spam techniques, Ars Technica, Asharq Al-Awsat, Asset classes, Austrian school of economics, Baidu, Bank of Estonia, Bed Bath & Beyond (online retailer), Bitcoin Cash, Bitcoin Core, Bitcoin Foundation, Bitcoin in El Salvador, Bitcoin Law, Bitcoin protocol, Bitcoin scalability problem, Bitcoin Unlimited, Bitfinex, Black market, Block, Inc., Blockchain, Blockchain analysis, Bloomberg Businessweek, Bloomberg L.P., Bloomberg News, Business Insider, Buy and hold, Byzantine fault, Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance, Cambridge Judge Business School, Canton of Zug, Capitalization, CBS News, Celsius Network, Central African Republic, Central bank, Central Bank of Iran, CFA franc, Chargeback, Chartered Alternative Investment Analyst, Chicago Mercantile Exchange, Client (computing), CNBC, Colorado, Communications of the ACM, Complementary currency, ... Expand index (202 more) »
Abstraction layer
In computing, an abstraction layer or abstraction level is a way of hiding the working details of a subsystem.
See Bitcoin and Abstraction layer
Adam Back
Adam Back (born July 1970) is a British cryptographer and cypherpunk.
Administrative division
Administrative divisions (also administrative units, administrative regions, #-level subdivisions, subnational entities, or constituent states, as well as many similar generic terms) are geographical areas into which a particular independent sovereign state is divided.
See Bitcoin and Administrative division
Anarchism
Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is against all forms of authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including the state and capitalism.
Anti-spam techniques
Various anti-spam techniques are used to prevent email spam (unsolicited bulk email).
See Bitcoin and Anti-spam techniques
Ars Technica
Ars Technica is a website covering news and opinions in technology, science, politics, and society, created by Ken Fisher and Jon Stokes in 1998.
Asharq Al-Awsat
Asharq Al-Awsat (Aš-Šarq al-ʾAwsaṭ, meaning "The Middle East") is an Arabic international newspaper headquartered in London.
See Bitcoin and Asharq Al-Awsat
Asset classes
In finance, an asset class is a group of financial instruments that have similar financial characteristics and behave similarly in the marketplace.
Austrian school of economics
The Austrian school is a heterodox school of economic thought that advocates strict adherence to methodological individualism, the concept that social phenomena result primarily from the motivations and actions of individuals along with their self interest.
See Bitcoin and Austrian school of economics
Baidu
Baidu, Inc. is a Chinese multinational technology company specializing in Internet services and artificial intelligence.
Bank of Estonia
The Bank of Estonia (Eesti Pank) is the Estonian member of the Eurosystem and has been the monetary authority for Estonia from 1919 to 2010, albeit with a long suspension between 1940 and 1989, issuing the Estonian kroon.
See Bitcoin and Bank of Estonia
Bed Bath & Beyond (online retailer)
Beyond, Inc. is an American online retailer headquartered in Midvale, Utah.
See Bitcoin and Bed Bath & Beyond (online retailer)
Bitcoin Cash
Bitcoin Cash is a cryptocurrency that is a fork of Bitcoin. Bitcoin and Bitcoin Cash are currencies without ISO 4217 code.
Bitcoin Core
Bitcoin Core is free and open-source software that serves as a bitcoin node (the set of which form the Bitcoin network) and provides a bitcoin wallet which fully verifies payments.
Bitcoin Foundation
The Bitcoin Foundation is an American organization that was formerly a nonprofit corporation.
See Bitcoin and Bitcoin Foundation
Bitcoin in El Salvador
El Salvador became the first country in the world to use bitcoin as legal tender, after having been adopted as such by the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador in 2021.
See Bitcoin and Bitcoin in El Salvador
Bitcoin Law
The Bitcoin Law (Ley Bitcoin), Official Journal of El Salvador, National Press of El Salvador was passed by the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador on 8 June 2021, giving the cryptocurrency bitcoin the status of legal tender within El Salvador after 7 September 2021.
Bitcoin protocol
The Bitcoin protocol is the set of rules that govern the functioning of Bitcoin.
See Bitcoin and Bitcoin protocol
Bitcoin scalability problem
The Bitcoin scalability problem refers to the limited capability of the Bitcoin network to handle large amounts of transaction data on its platform in a short span of time.
See Bitcoin and Bitcoin scalability problem
Bitcoin Unlimited
Bitcoin Unlimited (BU) is a full node implementation for the bitcoin and Bitcoin Cash networks.
See Bitcoin and Bitcoin Unlimited
Bitfinex
Bitfinex is a cryptocurrency exchange owned and operated by iFinex Inc, and is registered in the British Virgin Islands.
Black market
A black market, underground economy, or shadow economy is a clandestine market or series of transactions that has some aspect of illegality or is not compliant with an institutional set of rules.
Block, Inc.
Block, Inc. (formerly Square, Inc.) is a U.S. listed company founded by Jack Dorsey and Jim McKelvey in 2009.
Blockchain
A blockchain is a distributed ledger with growing lists of records (blocks) that are securely linked together via cryptographic hashes.
Blockchain analysis
Blockchain analysis is the process of inspecting, identifying, clustering, modeling and visually representing data on a cryptographic distributed-ledger known as a blockchain.
See Bitcoin and Blockchain analysis
Bloomberg Businessweek
Bloomberg Businessweek, previously known as BusinessWeek (and before that Business Week and The Business Week), is an American monthly business magazine published 12 times a year.
See Bitcoin and Bloomberg Businessweek
Bloomberg L.P.
Bloomberg L.P. is a privately held financial, software, data, and media company headquartered in Midtown Manhattan, New York City.
See Bitcoin and Bloomberg L.P.
Bloomberg News
Bloomberg News (originally Bloomberg Business News) is an international news agency headquartered in New York City and a division of Bloomberg L.P. Content produced by Bloomberg News is disseminated through Bloomberg Terminals, Bloomberg Television, Bloomberg Radio, Bloomberg Businessweek, Bloomberg Markets, Bloomberg.com, and Bloomberg's mobile platforms.
See Bitcoin and Bloomberg News
Business Insider
Business Insider (stylized in all caps, shortened to BI, known from 2021 to 2023 as Insider) is a New York City–based multinational financial and business news website founded in 2007.
See Bitcoin and Business Insider
Buy and hold
Buy and hold, also called position trading, is an investment strategy whereby an investor buys financial assets or non-financial assets such as real estate, to hold them long term, with the goal of realizing price appreciation, despite volatility.
Byzantine fault
A Byzantine fault (also Byzantine generals problem, interactive consistency, source congruency, error avalanche, Byzantine agreement problem, and Byzantine failure) is a condition of a computer system, particularly distributed computing systems, where components may fail and there is imperfect information on whether a component has failed.
See Bitcoin and Byzantine fault
Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary
The Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (abbreviated CALD) is a British dictionary of the English language.
See Bitcoin and Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary
Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance
The Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance is a research institute established in 2015 as a part of Cambridge Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.
See Bitcoin and Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance
Cambridge Judge Business School
Cambridge Judge Business School is the business school of the University of Cambridge.
See Bitcoin and Cambridge Judge Business School
Canton of Zug
The canton of Zug or Zoug (Kanton Zug, Standard German:, Alemannic German:; Chantun Zug; Canton de Zoug; Canton Zugo) is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland.
Capitalization
Capitalization (American English) or capitalisation (British English) is writing a word with its first letter as a capital letter (uppercase letter) and the remaining letters in lower case, in writing systems with a case distinction.
See Bitcoin and Capitalization
CBS News
CBS News is the news division of the American television and radio broadcaster CBS.
Celsius Network
Celsius Network LLC was a cryptocurrency company.
See Bitcoin and Celsius Network
Central African Republic
The Central African Republic (CAR), formerly known as Ubangi-Shari, is a landlocked country in Central Africa.
See Bitcoin and Central African Republic
Central bank
A central bank, reserve bank, national bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages the currency and monetary policy of a country or monetary union.
Central Bank of Iran
The Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran (CBI; Bank Markazi-ye Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān; SWIFT Code: BMJIIRTH), also known as Bank Markazi, was established under the Iranian Banking and Monetary Act in 1960, it serves as the banker to the Iranian government and has the exclusive right of issuing banknote and coinage.
See Bitcoin and Central Bank of Iran
CFA franc
The CFA franc (franc CFA), or Franc of the Financial Community of Africa (originally the Franc of the French Colonies in Africa,; colloquially franc; abbreviation: F.CFA), is the name of two currencies, the West African CFA franc, used in eight West African countries, and the Central African CFA franc, used in six Central African countries.
Chargeback
A chargeback is a return of money to a payer of a transaction, especially a credit card transaction.
Chartered Alternative Investment Analyst
Chartered Alternative Investment Analyst (CAIA) (pronounced "KAI-ah") is a professional designation offered by the CAIA Association to investment professionals who complete a course of study and pass two examinations.
See Bitcoin and Chartered Alternative Investment Analyst
Chicago Mercantile Exchange
The Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) (often called "the Chicago Merc", or "the Merc") is a global derivatives marketplace based in Chicago and located at 20 S. Wacker Drive.
See Bitcoin and Chicago Mercantile Exchange
Client (computing)
Client is a computer that gets information from another computer called server in the context of client–server model of computer networks.
See Bitcoin and Client (computing)
CNBC
CNBC is an American business news channel owned by NBCUniversal News Group, a unit of Comcast's NBCUniversal.
See Bitcoin and CNBC
Colorado
Colorado (other variants) is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States.
Communications of the ACM
Communications of the ACM is the monthly journal of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).
See Bitcoin and Communications of the ACM
Complementary currency
A complementary currency is a currency or medium of exchange that is not necessarily a national currency, but that is thought of as supplementing or complementing national currencies.
See Bitcoin and Complementary currency
Computer hardware
Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as the central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), motherboard, computer data storage, graphics card, sound card, and computer case.
See Bitcoin and Computer hardware
Computer network
A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided by network nodes.
See Bitcoin and Computer network
Computer performance
In computing, computer performance is the amount of useful work accomplished by a computer system.
See Bitcoin and Computer performance
Computer security
Computer security (also cybersecurity, digital security, or information technology (IT) security) is the protection of computer systems and networks from threats that may result in unauthorized information disclosure, theft of (or damage to) hardware, software, or data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.
See Bitcoin and Computer security
Computerworld
Computerworld (abbreviated as CW) is an ongoing decades-old professional publication which in 2014 "went digital." Its audience is information technology (IT) and business technology professionals, and is available via a publication website and as a digital magazine.
Consensus (computer science)
A fundamental problem in distributed computing and multi-agent systems is to achieve overall system reliability in the presence of a number of faulty processes.
See Bitcoin and Consensus (computer science)
Crypto-anarchy
Crypto-anarchy, crypto-anarchism, cyberanarchy or cyberanarchism is a political ideology focusing on the protection of privacy, political freedom, and economic freedom, the adherents of which use cryptographic software for confidentiality and security while sending and receiving information over computer networks.
See Bitcoin and Crypto-anarchy
Cryptocurrency
A cryptocurrency, crypto-currency, or crypto is a digital currency designed to work as a medium of exchange through a computer network that is not reliant on any central authority, such as a government or bank, to uphold or maintain it.
See Bitcoin and Cryptocurrency
Cryptocurrency and crime
Cryptocurrency and crime describe notable examples of cybercrime related to theft (or the otherwise illegal acquisition) of cryptocurrencies and some methods or security vulnerabilities commonly exploited.
See Bitcoin and Cryptocurrency and crime
Cryptocurrency exchange
A cryptocurrency exchange, or a digital currency exchange (DCE), is a business that allows customers to trade cryptocurrencies or digital currencies for other assets, such as conventional fiat money or other digital currencies.
See Bitcoin and Cryptocurrency exchange
Cryptocurrency wallet
A cryptocurrency wallet is a device, physical medium, program or an online service which stores the public and/or private keys for cryptocurrency transactions.
See Bitcoin and Cryptocurrency wallet
Cryptographic hash function
A cryptographic hash function (CHF) is a hash algorithm (a map of an arbitrary binary string to a binary string with a fixed size of n bits) that has special properties desirable for a cryptographic application.
See Bitcoin and Cryptographic hash function
Cryptographic nonce
In cryptography, a nonce is an arbitrary number that can be used just once in a cryptographic communication.
See Bitcoin and Cryptographic nonce
Cryptography
Cryptography, or cryptology (from κρυπτός|translit.
Currency
A currency is a standardization of money in any form, in use or circulation as a medium of exchange, for example banknotes and coins.
Currency symbol
A currency symbol or currency sign is a graphic symbol used to denote a currency unit.
See Bitcoin and Currency symbol
Cynthia Dwork
Cynthia Dwork (born June 27, 1958) is an American computer scientist best known for her contributions to cryptography, distributed computing, and algorithmic fairness.
Cypherpunk
A cypherpunk is any individual advocating widespread use of strong cryptography and privacy-enhancing technologies as a route to social and political change.
Dark web
The dark web is the World Wide Web content that exists on darknets: overlay networks that use the Internet but require specific software, configurations, or authorization to access.
Data breach
A data breach, also known as data leakage, is "the unauthorized exposure, disclosure, or loss of personal information".
David Chaum
David Lee Chaum (born 1955) is an American computer scientist, cryptographer, and inventor.
De facto
De facto describes practices that exist in reality, regardless of whether they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms.
Decentralization
Decentralization or decentralisation is the process by which the activities of an organization, particularly those regarding planning and decision-making, are distributed or delegated away from a central, authoritative location or group and given to smaller factions within it.
See Bitcoin and Decentralization
Decentralized application
A decentralised application (DApp, dApp, Dapp, or dapp) is an application that can operate autonomously, typically through the use of smart contracts, that run on a decentralized computing, blockchain or other distributed ledger system.
See Bitcoin and Decentralized application
Delusion
A delusion is a false fixed belief that is not amenable to change in light of conflicting evidence.
Deterministic algorithm
In computer science, a deterministic algorithm is an algorithm that, given a particular input, will always produce the same output, with the underlying machine always passing through the same sequence of states.
See Bitcoin and Deterministic algorithm
Digital currency
Digital currency (digital money, electronic money or electronic currency) is any currency, money, or money-like asset that is primarily managed, stored or exchanged on digital computer systems, especially over the internet.
See Bitcoin and Digital currency
Digital signature
A digital signature is a mathematical scheme for verifying the authenticity of digital messages or documents.
See Bitcoin and Digital signature
Distributed ledger
A distributed ledger (also called a shared ledger or distributed ledger technology or DLT) is a system whereby replicated, shared, and synchronized digital data is geographically spread (distributed) across many sites, countries, or institutions.
See Bitcoin and Distributed ledger
Double-spending
Double-spending is the unauthorized production and spending of money, either digital or conventional.
See Bitcoin and Double-spending
Drug Enforcement Administration
The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the U.S. Department of Justice tasked with combating illicit drug trafficking and distribution within the U.S. It is the lead agency for domestic enforcement of the Controlled Substances Act, sharing concurrent jurisdiction with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the U.S.
See Bitcoin and Drug Enforcement Administration
Ecash
Ecash was conceived by David Chaum as an anonymous cryptographic electronic money or electronic cash system in 1982.
Economic bubble
An economic bubble (also called a speculative bubble or a financial bubble) is a period when current asset prices greatly exceed their intrinsic valuation, being the valuation that the underlying long-term fundamentals justify.
See Bitcoin and Economic bubble
El País
() is a Spanish-language daily newspaper in Spain.
El Salvador
El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador, is a country in Central America.
Electronic waste
Electronic waste (or e-waste) describes discarded electrical or electronic devices.
See Bitcoin and Electronic waste
Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm
In cryptography, the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) offers a variant of the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) which uses elliptic-curve cryptography.
See Bitcoin and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm
Elliptic-curve cryptography
Elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) is an approach to public-key cryptography based on the algebraic structure of elliptic curves over finite fields.
See Bitcoin and Elliptic-curve cryptography
Elon Musk
Elon Reeve Musk (born June 28, 1971) is a businessman and investor known for his key roles in space company SpaceX and automotive company Tesla, Inc. Other involvements include ownership of X Corp., the company that operates the social media platform X (formerly known as Twitter), and his role in the founding of The Boring Company, xAI, Neuralink and OpenAI.
Environmental effects of bitcoin
The environmental effects of bitcoin are significant.
See Bitcoin and Environmental effects of bitcoin
Eric Posner
Eric Andrew Posner (born December 5, 1965) is an American lawyer and legal scholar.
European Central Bank
The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central component of the Eurosystem and the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) as well as one of seven institutions of the European Union.
See Bitcoin and European Central Bank
European Investment Bank
The European Investment Bank (EIB) is the European Union's investment bank and is owned by the 27 member states.
See Bitcoin and European Investment Bank
Exchange-traded fund
An exchange-traded fund (ETF) is a type of investment fund that is also an exchange-traded product, i.e., it is traded on stock exchanges.
See Bitcoin and Exchange-traded fund
Fad
A fad, trend, or craze is any form of collective behavior that develops within a culture, a generation or social group in which a group of people enthusiastically follow an impulse for a short time period.
See Bitcoin and Fad
Federal Reserve
The Federal Reserve System (often shortened to the Federal Reserve, or simply the Fed) is the central banking system of the United States.
See Bitcoin and Federal Reserve
Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago
The Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago (informally the Chicago Fed) is one of twelve Federal Reserve Banks that, along with the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, make up the Federal Reserve System, the United States' central bank.
See Bitcoin and Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
The Federal Reserve Bank of St.
See Bitcoin and Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Fiat money
Fiat money is a type of currency that is not backed by a precious metal, such as gold or silver, or backed by any other tangible asset or commodity.
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) is a bureau of the United States Department of the Treasury that collects and analyzes information about financial transactions in order to combat domestic and international money laundering, terrorist financing, and other financial crimes.
See Bitcoin and Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
Financial Times
The Financial Times (FT) is a British daily newspaper printed in broadsheet and also published digitally that focuses on business and economic current affairs.
See Bitcoin and Financial Times
Financial transaction
A financial transaction is an agreement, or communication, between a buyer and seller to exchange goods, services, or assets for payment.
See Bitcoin and Financial transaction
Forbes
Forbes is an American business magazine founded by B. C. Forbes in 1917 and owned by Hong Kong-based investment group Integrated Whale Media Investments since 2014.
Foreign exchange reserves
Foreign exchange reserves (also called forex reserves or FX reserves) are cash and other reserve assets such as gold and silver held by a central bank or other monetary authority that are primarily available to balance payments of the country, influence the foreign exchange rate of its currency, and to maintain confidence in financial markets.
See Bitcoin and Foreign exchange reserves
Fork (blockchain)
In blockchain, a fork is defined variously as.
See Bitcoin and Fork (blockchain)
Fork (software development)
In software engineering, a project fork happens when developers take a copy of source code from one software package and start independent development on it, creating a distinct and separate piece of software.
See Bitcoin and Fork (software development)
Forth (programming language)
Forth is a stack-oriented programming language and interactive integrated development environment designed by Charles H. "Chuck" Moore and first used by other programmers in 1970.
See Bitcoin and Forth (programming language)
Fortune (magazine)
Fortune (stylized in all caps) is an American global business magazine headquartered in New York City.
See Bitcoin and Fortune (magazine)
Fossil fuel
A fossil fuel is a carbon compound- or hydrocarbon-containing material such as coal, oil, and natural gas, formed naturally in the Earth's crust from the remains of prehistoric organisms (animals, plants and planktons), a process that occurs within geological formations.
Free and open-source software
Free and open-source software (FOSS) is software that is available under a license that grants the right to use, modify, and distribute the software, modified or not, to everyone free of charge.
See Bitcoin and Free and open-source software
Free market
In economics, a free market is an economic system in which the prices of goods and services are determined by supply and demand expressed by sellers and buyers.
Freelancer
Freelance (sometimes spelled free-lance or free lance), freelancer, or freelance worker, are terms commonly used for a person who is self-employed and not necessarily committed to a particular employer long-term.
Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich August von Hayek (8 May 1899 – 23 March 1992), often referred to by his initials F. A. Hayek, was an Austrian-British academic, who contributed to economics, political philosophy, psychology, and intellectual history.
See Bitcoin and Friedrich Hayek
Fungibility
In economics and law, fungibility is the property of a good or a commodity whose individual units are essentially interchangeable.
Futures contract
In finance, a futures contract (sometimes called futures) is a standardized legal contract to buy or sell something at a predetermined price for delivery at a specified time in the future, between parties not yet known to each other.
See Bitcoin and Futures contract
Gavin Andresen
Gavin Andresen (formerly Gavin Bell) is a software developer known for his involvement with bitcoin.
See Bitcoin and Gavin Andresen
GHash.io
GHash.io was a bitcoin mining pool subsidiary of CEX.io that operated from 2013-2016.
GitHub
GitHub is a developer platform that allows developers to create, store, manage and share their code.
Government of Iran
The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Nezâm-e Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi-ye Irân), known simply as Nezam (translit), is the ruling state and current political system in Iran, in power since the Iranian Revolution and fall of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979.
See Bitcoin and Government of Iran
Hal Finney (computer scientist)
Harold Thomas Finney II (May 4, 1956 – August 28, 2014) was an American software developer.
See Bitcoin and Hal Finney (computer scientist)
Hard disk drive
A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk is an electro-mechanical data storage device that stores and retrieves digital data using magnetic storage with one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic material.
See Bitcoin and Hard disk drive
Hashcash
Hashcash is a proof-of-work system used to limit email spam and denial-of-service attacks.
Hashrate
The proof-of-work distributed computing schemes, including Bitcoin, frequently use cryptographic hashes as a proof-of-work algorithm.
IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials
IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by the IEEE Communications Society for tutorials and surveys covering all aspects of the communications field.
See Bitcoin and IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials
IEEE Security & Privacy
IEEE Security & Privacy is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by jointly by the IEEE Computer Society and the IEEE Reliability Society.
See Bitcoin and IEEE Security & Privacy
Illicit trade
Illicit trade is the production or distribution of a good or service that is considered illegal by a legislature.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is an American 501(c)(3) professional association for electronics engineering, electrical engineering, and other related disciplines.
See Bitcoin and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution funded by 190 member countries, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It is regarded as the global lender of last resort to national governments, and a leading supporter of exchange-rate stability.
See Bitcoin and International Monetary Fund
International Review of Financial Analysis
The International Review of Financial Analysis is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal in the field of finance.
See Bitcoin and International Review of Financial Analysis
International sanctions against Iran
There have been a number of international sanctions against Iran imposed by a number of countries, especially the United States, and international entities.
See Bitcoin and International sanctions against Iran
Investment
Investment is traditionally defined as the "commitment of resources to achieve later benefits".
ISO 4217
ISO 4217 is a standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that defines alpha codes and numeric codes for the representation of currencies and provides information about the relationships between individual currencies and their minor units.
James Heckman
James Joseph Heckman (born April 19, 1944) is an American economist and Nobel laureate who serves as the Henry Schultz Distinguished Service Professor in Economics at the University of Chicago, where he is also a professor at the College, a professor at the Harris School of Public Policy, Director of the Center for the Economics of Human Development (CEHD), and Co-Director of Human Capital and Economic Opportunity (HCEO) Global Working Group.
Joseph Stiglitz
Joseph Eugene Stiglitz (born February 9, 1943) is an American New Keynesian economist, a public policy analyst, political activist, and a full professor at Columbia University.
See Bitcoin and Joseph Stiglitz
Joule (journal)
Joule is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Cell Press.
See Bitcoin and Joule (journal)
Journal of Economic Perspectives
The Journal of Economic Perspectives (JEP) is an economic journal published by the American Economic Association.
See Bitcoin and Journal of Economic Perspectives
Journal of Management Information Systems
The Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS) is a top-tier peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes impactful research articles making a significant novel contribution in the areas of information systems and information technology.
See Bitcoin and Journal of Management Information Systems
Journal of Monetary Economics
The Journal of Monetary Economics is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering research on macroeconomics and monetary economics.
See Bitcoin and Journal of Monetary Economics
Legal tender
Legal tender is a form of money that courts of law are required to recognize as satisfactory payment for any monetary debt.
Legality of cryptocurrency by country or territory
The legal status of cryptocurrencies varies substantially from one jurisdiction to another, and is still undefined or changing in many of them.
See Bitcoin and Legality of cryptocurrency by country or territory
Libertarianism
Libertarianism (from libertaire, itself from the lit) is a political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core value.
See Bitcoin and Libertarianism
Lightning Network
The Lightning Network (LN) is a payment protocol built on the Bitcoin blockchain and those of other cryptocurrencies.
See Bitcoin and Lightning Network
List of bitcoin companies
This is a list of for-profit companies with notable commercial activities related to bitcoin.
See Bitcoin and List of bitcoin companies
List of bitcoin forks
Bitcoin forks are defined variantly as changes in the protocol of the bitcoin network or as the situations that occur "when two or more blocks have the same block height".
See Bitcoin and List of bitcoin forks
List of bitcoin organizations
This is a list of nonprofit organizations with notable activities related to bitcoin.
See Bitcoin and List of bitcoin organizations
List of cryptocurrencies
Since the creation of bitcoin in 2009, the number of new cryptocurrencies has expanded rapidly.
See Bitcoin and List of cryptocurrencies
Market capitalization
Market capitalization, sometimes referred to as market cap, is the total value of a publicly traded company's outstanding common shares owned by stockholders.
See Bitcoin and Market capitalization
Market exposure
In finance, market exposure (or exposure) is a measure of the proportion of money invested in the same industry sector.
See Bitcoin and Market exposure
Market manipulation
In economics and finance, market manipulation is a type of market abuse where there is a deliberate attempt to interfere with the free and fair operation of the market; the most blatant of cases involve creating false or misleading appearances with respect to the price of, or market for, a product, security or commodity.
See Bitcoin and Market manipulation
MassMutual
The Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company, also known as MassMutual, is a Springfield, Massachusetts-based life insurance company.
Medium of exchange
In economics, a medium of exchange is any item that is widely acceptable in exchange for goods and services.
See Bitcoin and Medium of exchange
Megabyte
The megabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information.
MicroStrategy
MicroStrategy Incorporated is an American company that provides business intelligence (BI), mobile software, and cloud-based services.
Mining pool
In the context of cryptocurrency mining, a mining pool is the pooling of resources by miners, who share their processing power over a network, to split the reward equally, according to the amount of work they contributed to the probability of finding a block.
MIT License
The MIT License is a permissive software license originating at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the late 1980s.
MIT Technology Review
MIT Technology Review is a bimonthly magazine wholly owned by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and editorially independent of the university.
See Bitcoin and MIT Technology Review
Money
Money is any item or verifiable record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts, such as taxes, in a particular country or socio-economic context.
Money laundering
Money laundering is the process of illegally concealing the origin of money, obtained from illicit activities such as drug trafficking, corruption, embezzlement or gambling, by converting it into a legitimate source.
See Bitcoin and Money laundering
Money services business
A money services business (MSB) is a legal term used by financial regulators to describe businesses that transmit or convert money.
See Bitcoin and Money services business
Moni Naor
Moni Naor (מוני נאור) is an Israeli computer scientist, currently a professor at the Weizmann Institute of Science.
Mother Jones (magazine)
Mother Jones (abbreviated MoJo) is a nonprofit American progressive magazine that focuses on news, commentary, and investigative journalism on topics including politics, environment, human rights, health and culture.
See Bitcoin and Mother Jones (magazine)
Mt. Gox
Mt. Gox was a Bitcoin exchange based in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. Launched in 2006 as a tradable card game service, Mt. Gox transitioned into a Bitcoin exchange by 2010 and handled over 70% of all Bitcoin transactions globally by early 2014. In February 2014, Mt. Gox suspended trading, closed its website and exchange service, and filed for bankruptcy protection from creditors.
Multiple discovery
The concept of multiple discovery (also known as simultaneous invention) is the hypothesis that most scientific discoveries and inventions are made independently and more or less simultaneously by multiple scientists and inventors.
See Bitcoin and Multiple discovery
Nick Szabo
Nicholas Szabo is a computer scientist, legal scholar, and cryptographer known for his research in smart contracts and digital currency.
Nigel Dodd
Nigel B. Dodd (1965-2022) was a British sociologist.
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne), is an economics award funded by Sveriges Riksbank and administered by the Nobel Foundation.
See Bitcoin and Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
Node (networking)
In telecommunications networks, a node (‘knot’) is either a redistribution point or a communication endpoint.
See Bitcoin and Node (networking)
Non-fungible token
A non-fungible token (NFT) is a unique digital identifier that is recorded on a blockchain and is used to certify ownership and authenticity.
See Bitcoin and Non-fungible token
Open-source software
Open-source software (OSS) is computer software that is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to use, study, change, and distribute the software and its source code to anyone and for any purpose.
See Bitcoin and Open-source software
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (OALD) was the first advanced learner's dictionary of English.
See Bitcoin and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
Papa John's
Papa John's International, Inc., d/b/a Papa Johns, is an American pizza restaurant chain.
Paste (magazine)
Paste is an American monthly music and entertainment digital magazine, headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, with studios in Atlanta and Manhattan, and owned by Paste Media Group.
See Bitcoin and Paste (magazine)
Paul Krugman
Paul Robin Krugman (born February 28, 1953) is an American economist who is the Distinguished Professor of Economics at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and a columnist for The New York Times.
Payment system
A payment system is any system used to settle financial transactions through the transfer of monetary value.
See Bitcoin and Payment system
PayPal
PayPal Holdings, Inc. is an American multinational financial technology company operating an online payments system in the majority of countries that support online money transfers; it serves as an electronic alternative to traditional paper methods such as checks and money orders.
Peer review
Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as the producers of the work (peers).
Peer-to-peer
Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers.
People's Bank of China
The People's Bank of China (officially PBC and unofficially PBOC) is the central bank of the People's Republic of China.
See Bitcoin and People's Bank of China
Ponzi scheme
A Ponzi scheme is a form of fraud that lures investors and pays profits to earlier investors with funds from more recent investors.
Price of oil
The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent Crude, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus, and Western Canadian Select (WCS).
Privacy and blockchain
A blockchain is a shared database that records transactions between two parties in an immutable ledger.
See Bitcoin and Privacy and blockchain
Proof of concept
Proof of concept (POC or PoC), also known as proof of principle, is a realization of a certain idea, method or principle in order to demonstrate its feasibility, or viability, or a demonstration in principle with the aim of verifying that some concept or theory has practical potential.
See Bitcoin and Proof of concept
Proof of work
Proof of work (PoW) is a form of cryptographic proof in which one party (the prover) proves to others (the verifiers) that a certain amount of a specific computational effort has been expended.
ProShares is an issuer of exchange-traded funds, including inverse exchange-traded funds, and similar products.
Pseudonym
A pseudonym or alias is a fictitious name that a person assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from their original or true name (orthonym).
Public-key cryptography
Public-key cryptography, or asymmetric cryptography, is the field of cryptographic systems that use pairs of related keys.
See Bitcoin and Public-key cryptography
QR code
A QR code (quick-response code) is a type of two-dimensional matrix barcode, invented in 1994, by Japanese company Denso Wave for labelling automobile parts.
Quartz (publication)
Quartz is an American English language news website owned by G/O Media.
See Bitcoin and Quartz (publication)
Remittance
A remittance is a non-commercial transfer of money by a foreign worker, a member of a diaspora community, or a citizen with familial ties abroad, for household income in their home country or homeland.
Renminbi
The renminbi (symbol: ¥; ISO code: CNY; abbreviation: RMB), also known as Chinese Yuan is the official currency of the People's Republic of China.
Robert J. Shiller
Robert James Shiller (born March 29, 1946) is an American economist, academic, and author.
See Bitcoin and Robert J. Shiller
Ross Ulbricht
Ross William Ulbricht (born March 27, 1984) is an American serving life imprisonment for creating and operating the darknet market website Silk Road from 2011 until his arrest in 2013.
Routing
Routing is the process of selecting a path for traffic in a network or between or across multiple networks.
S&P 500
The Standard and Poor's 500, or simply the S&P 500, is a stock market index tracking the stock performance of 500 of the largest companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States.
Satoshi Nakamoto
Satoshi Nakamoto is the name used by the presumed pseudonymous person or persons who developed Bitcoin, authored the Bitcoin white paper, and created and deployed Bitcoin's original reference implementation.
See Bitcoin and Satoshi Nakamoto
Scalability
Scalability is the property of a system to handle a growing amount of work.
Schnorr signature
In cryptography, a Schnorr signature is a digital signature produced by the Schnorr signature algorithm that was described by Claus Schnorr.
See Bitcoin and Schnorr signature
Scripting language
In computing, a script is a relatively short and simple set of instructions that typically automate an otherwise manual process.
See Bitcoin and Scripting language
SegWit
Segregated Witness, or SegWit, is the name used for an implemented soft fork change in the transaction format of Bitcoin.
SHA-2
SHA-2 (Secure Hash Algorithm 2) is a set of cryptographic hash functions designed by the United States National Security Agency (NSA) and first published in 2001.
Silk Road (marketplace)
Silk Road was an online black market and the first modern darknet market.
See Bitcoin and Silk Road (marketplace)
Silver as an investment
Silver may be used as an investment like other precious metals.
See Bitcoin and Silver as an investment
Smart contract
A smart contract is a computer program or a transaction protocol that is intended to automatically execute, control or document events and actions according to the terms of a contract or an agreement.
See Bitcoin and Smart contract
Social contagion involves behaviour, emotions, or conditions spreading spontaneously through a group or network.
See Bitcoin and Social contagion
The Social Science Research Network (SSRN) is a repository for preprints devoted to the rapid dissemination of scholarly research in the social sciences, humanities, life sciences, and health sciences, among others.
See Bitcoin and Social Science Research Network
Software repository
A software repository, or repo for short, is a storage location for software packages.
See Bitcoin and Software repository
South China Morning Post
The South China Morning Post (SCMP), with its Sunday edition, the Sunday Morning Post, is a Hong Kong-based English-language newspaper owned by Alibaba Group.
See Bitcoin and South China Morning Post
SpaceX
Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, commonly referred to as SpaceX, is an American spacecraft manufacturer, launch service provider and satellite communications company headquartered in Hawthorne, California.
Spot market
The spot market or cash market is a public financial market in which financial instruments or commodities are traded for immediate delivery.
Springer Nature
Springer Nature or the Springer Nature Group is a German-British academic publishing company created by the May 2015 merger of Springer Science+Business Media and Holtzbrinck Publishing Group's Nature Publishing Group, Palgrave Macmillan, and Macmillan Education.
See Bitcoin and Springer Nature
Stablecoin
A stablecoin is a type of cryptocurrency where the value of the digital asset is supposed to be pegged to a reference asset, which is either fiat money, exchange-traded commodities (such as precious metals or industrial metals), or another cryptocurrency.
Store of value
A store of value is any commodity or asset that would normally retain purchasing power into the future and is the function of the asset that can be saved, retrieved and exchanged at a later time, and be predictably useful when retrieved.
See Bitcoin and Store of value
SWI swissinfo
SWI swissinfo.ch is a Swiss multilingual international news and information company based in Bern.
Switzerland
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe.
Sybil attack
A Sybil attack is a type of attack on a computer network service in which an attacker subverts the service's reputation system by creating a large number of pseudonymous identities and uses them to gain a disproportionately large influence.
Taipei Times
The Taipei Times is the last surviving English-language print newspaper in Taiwan.
TechCrunch
TechCrunch is an American global online newspaper focusing on topics regarding high-tech and startup companies.
Terra (blockchain)
Terra is a blockchain protocol and payment platform used for algorithmic stablecoins.
See Bitcoin and Terra (blockchain)
Tesla, Inc.
Tesla, Inc. is an American multinational automotive and clean energy company.
Tether (cryptocurrency)
Tether (often referred to by its currency codes, USD₮ and USDT, among others) is a cryptocurrency stablecoin, launched by the company Tether Limited Inc. Bitcoin and Tether (cryptocurrency) are currencies without ISO 4217 code.
See Bitcoin and Tether (cryptocurrency)
Thai baht
The baht (บาท,; sign: ฿; code: THB) is the official currency of Thailand.
The Denationalization of Money
The Denationalisation of Money is a 1976 book by Friedrich Hayek.
See Bitcoin and The Denationalization of Money
The Denver Post
The Denver Post is a daily newspaper and website published in the Denver metropolitan area.
See Bitcoin and The Denver Post
The Economist
The Economist is a British weekly newspaper published in printed magazine format and digitally.
The Independent
The Independent is a British online newspaper.
See Bitcoin and The Independent
The Journal of Finance
The Journal of Finance is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Finance Association.
See Bitcoin and The Journal of Finance
The New York Times
The New York Times (NYT) is an American daily newspaper based in New York City.
See Bitcoin and The New York Times
The New Yorker
The New Yorker is an American magazine featuring journalism, commentary, criticism, essays, fiction, satire, cartoons, and poetry.
See Bitcoin and The New Yorker
The Sydney Morning Herald
The Sydney Morning Herald (SMH) is a daily tabloid newspaper published in Sydney, Australia, and owned by Nine.
See Bitcoin and The Sydney Morning Herald
The Times
The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London.
The Wall Street Journal
The Wall Street Journal (WSJ), also referred to simply as the Journal, is an American newspaper based in New York City, with a focus on business and finance.
See Bitcoin and The Wall Street Journal
Transaction cost
In economics, a transaction cost is a cost incurred when making an economic trade when participating in a market.
See Bitcoin and Transaction cost
Treasury management
Treasury management (or treasury operations) entails management of an enterprise's financial holdings, focusing on the firm's liquidity, and mitigating its financial-, operational- and reputational risk.
See Bitcoin and Treasury management
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is an independent agency of the United States federal government, created in the aftermath of the Wall Street Crash of 1929.
See Bitcoin and U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
Unidad de Fomento
The Unidad de Fomento (UF) is a unit of account used in Chile.
See Bitcoin and Unidad de Fomento
Unit of account
In economics, unit of account is one of the functions of money.
See Bitcoin and Unit of account
United States
The United States of America (USA or U.S.A.), commonly known as the United States (US or U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America.
United States Treasury security
United States Treasury securities, also called Treasuries or Treasurys, are government debt instruments issued by the United States Department of the Treasury to finance government spending, in addition to taxation.
See Bitcoin and United States Treasury security
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public collegiate research university in Cambridge, England.
See Bitcoin and University of Cambridge
Unspent transaction output
In cryptocurrencies, an unspent transaction output (UTXO) is a distinctive element in a subset of digital currency models.
See Bitcoin and Unspent transaction output
Vice (magazine)
Vice (stylized in all caps) is a Canadian-American magazine focused on lifestyle, arts, culture, and news/politics.
See Bitcoin and Vice (magazine)
Volatility (finance)
In finance, volatility (usually denoted by "σ") is the degree of variation of a trading price series over time, usually measured by the standard deviation of logarithmic returns.
See Bitcoin and Volatility (finance)
Wei Dai
Wei Dai (c or c) is a computer engineer known for contributions to cryptography and cryptocurrencies.
Western Union
The Western Union Company is an American multinational financial services corporation headquartered in Denver, Colorado. Founded in 1851 as the New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company in Rochester, New York, the company changed its name to the Western Union Telegraph Company in 1856 after merging with several other telegraph companies.
White paper
A white paper is a report or guide that informs readers concisely about a complex issue and presents the issuing body's philosophy on the matter.
Winklevoss Capital Management
Winklevoss Capital is a family office founded in 2012 by Tyler Winklevoss and Cameron Winklevoss.
See Bitcoin and Winklevoss Capital Management
Wired UK
Wired UK is a bimonthly magazine that reports on the effects of science and technology.
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects.
World energy supply and consumption
World energy supply and consumption refers to the global supply of energy resources and its consumption.
See Bitcoin and World energy supply and consumption
Xinhua News Agency
Xinhua News Agency (English pronunciation),J.
See Bitcoin and Xinhua News Agency
2009 United Kingdom bank rescue package
A second bank rescue package totalling at least £50 billion was announced by the British government on 12 January 2009, as a response to the then-ongoing Financial crisis of 2007–2008.
See Bitcoin and 2009 United Kingdom bank rescue package
2020 stock market crash
On 20 February 2020, stock markets across the world suddenly crashed after growing instability due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
See Bitcoin and 2020 stock market crash
References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitcoin
Also known as 1 BTC, 1-BTC, BTCUSD=X, Bicoin, Bit Coin, BitCoinJ, Bitcent, Bitcents, Bitcion, Bitcoin (cryptocurrency), Bitcoin Black Friday, Bitcoin Ponzi scheme and pyramid scheme concerns, Bitcoin difficulty adjustment, Bitcoin qt, Bitcoin wallet, Bitcoin-Qt, Bitcoin.org, BitcoinShop, Bitcoinage, Bitcoind, Bitcoinqt, Bitcoins, Bitcorn, Bitocin, Bticoin, B⃦, CheckLockTimeVerify, CheckSequenceVerify, CoinCorner, Coinbit, Edison's renegade currency, HODL, Laszlo Hanyecz, MBTC, Microcoin, MilliBitcoin, Millicoin, Satoshis, UBTC, , ΜBTC.
, Computer hardware, Computer network, Computer performance, Computer security, Computerworld, Consensus (computer science), Crypto-anarchy, Cryptocurrency, Cryptocurrency and crime, Cryptocurrency exchange, Cryptocurrency wallet, Cryptographic hash function, Cryptographic nonce, Cryptography, Currency, Currency symbol, Cynthia Dwork, Cypherpunk, Dark web, Data breach, David Chaum, De facto, Decentralization, Decentralized application, Delusion, Deterministic algorithm, Digital currency, Digital signature, Distributed ledger, Double-spending, Drug Enforcement Administration, Ecash, Economic bubble, El País, El Salvador, Electronic waste, Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm, Elliptic-curve cryptography, Elon Musk, Environmental effects of bitcoin, Eric Posner, European Central Bank, European Investment Bank, Exchange-traded fund, Fad, Federal Reserve, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Fiat money, Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, Financial Times, Financial transaction, Forbes, Foreign exchange reserves, Fork (blockchain), Fork (software development), Forth (programming language), Fortune (magazine), Fossil fuel, Free and open-source software, Free market, Freelancer, Friedrich Hayek, Fungibility, Futures contract, Gavin Andresen, GHash.io, GitHub, Government of Iran, Hal Finney (computer scientist), Hard disk drive, Hashcash, Hashrate, IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials, IEEE Security & Privacy, Illicit trade, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, International Monetary Fund, International Review of Financial Analysis, International sanctions against Iran, Investment, ISO 4217, James Heckman, Joseph Stiglitz, Joule (journal), Journal of Economic Perspectives, Journal of Management Information Systems, Journal of Monetary Economics, Legal tender, Legality of cryptocurrency by country or territory, Libertarianism, Lightning Network, List of bitcoin companies, List of bitcoin forks, List of bitcoin organizations, List of cryptocurrencies, Market capitalization, Market exposure, Market manipulation, MassMutual, Medium of exchange, Megabyte, MicroStrategy, Mining pool, MIT License, MIT Technology Review, Money, Money laundering, Money services business, Moni Naor, Mother Jones (magazine), Mt. Gox, Multiple discovery, Nick Szabo, Nigel Dodd, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, Node (networking), Non-fungible token, Open-source software, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, Papa John's, Paste (magazine), Paul Krugman, Payment system, PayPal, Peer review, Peer-to-peer, People's Bank of China, Ponzi scheme, Price of oil, Privacy and blockchain, Proof of concept, Proof of work, ProShares, Pseudonym, Public-key cryptography, QR code, Quartz (publication), Remittance, Renminbi, Robert J. Shiller, Ross Ulbricht, Routing, S&P 500, Satoshi Nakamoto, Scalability, Schnorr signature, Scripting language, SegWit, SHA-2, Silk Road (marketplace), Silver as an investment, Smart contract, Social contagion, Social Science Research Network, Software repository, South China Morning Post, SpaceX, Spot market, Springer Nature, Stablecoin, Store of value, SWI swissinfo, Switzerland, Sybil attack, Taipei Times, TechCrunch, Terra (blockchain), Tesla, Inc., Tether (cryptocurrency), Thai baht, The Denationalization of Money, The Denver Post, The Economist, The Independent, The Journal of Finance, The New York Times, The New Yorker, The Sydney Morning Herald, The Times, The Wall Street Journal, Transaction cost, Treasury management, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Unidad de Fomento, Unit of account, United States, United States Treasury security, University of Cambridge, Unspent transaction output, Vice (magazine), Volatility (finance), Wei Dai, Western Union, White paper, Winklevoss Capital Management, Wired UK, World Bank, World energy supply and consumption, Xinhua News Agency, 2009 United Kingdom bank rescue package, 2020 stock market crash.