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Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely held as one of the most influential scientists. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics. His mass–energy equivalence formula, which arises from relativity theory, has been called "the world's most famous equation". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein broadly synonymous with genius. Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg) the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi war of extermination against his fellow Jews, Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommended that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay. Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. In 1905, he published four groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year). These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability of classical mechanics to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the electromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole. In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. With the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork for Bose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice". Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism too. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream modern physics. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time.

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Ancient Greek

Ancient Greek (Ἑλληνῐκή) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC.

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Atomic orbital

In quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a function describing the location and wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom.

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Big Bang

The Big Bang is a physical theory that describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of high density and temperature.

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Carbon

Carbon is a chemical element; it has symbol C and atomic number 6.

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Chemical bond

A chemical bond is the association of atoms or ions to form molecules, crystals, and other structures.

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Classical physics

Classical physics is a group of physics theories that predate modern, more complete, or more widely applicable theories.

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Copper

Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu and atomic number 29.

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Coulomb's law

Coulomb's inverse-square law, or simply Coulomb's law, is an experimental law of physics that calculates the amount of force between two electrically charged particles at rest.

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Electric charge

Electric charge (symbol q, sometimes Q) is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field.

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Electromagnetism

In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields.

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Electron

The electron (or in nuclear reactions) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge.

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Electron configuration

In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals.

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Elementary particle

In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles.

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Exchange interaction

In chemistry and physics, the exchange interaction is a quantum mechanical constraint on the states of indistinguishable particles.

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Ferromagnetism

Ferromagnetism is a property of certain materials (such as iron) that results in a significant, observable magnetic permeability, and in many cases, a significant magnetic coercivity, allowing the material to form a permanent magnet.

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Iron

Iron is a chemical element.

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Magnetic field

A magnetic field (sometimes called B-field) is a physical field that describes the magnetic influence on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials.

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Magnetic moment

In electromagnetism, the magnetic moment or magnetic dipole moment is the combination of strength and orientation of a magnet or other object or system that exerts a magnetic field.

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Magnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes inside the body.

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Motion

In physics, motion is when an object changes its position with respect to a reference point in a given time.

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Nickel

Nickel is a chemical element; it has symbol Ni and atomic number 28.

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Oxygen

Oxygen is a chemical element; it has symbol O and atomic number 8.

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Paramagnetism

Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby some materials are weakly attracted by an externally applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic field.

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Pauli exclusion principle

In quantum mechanics, the Pauli exclusion principle states that two or more identical particles with half-integer spins (i.e. fermions) cannot simultaneously occupy the same quantum state within a system that obeys the laws of quantum mechanics.

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Quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory that describes the behavior of nature at and below the scale of atoms.

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Sodium

Sodium is a chemical element; it has symbol Na (from Neo-Latin natrium) and atomic number 11.

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Speed of light

The speed of light in vacuum, commonly denoted, is a universal physical constant that is exactly equal to). According to the special theory of relativity, is the upper limit for the speed at which conventional matter or energy (and thus any signal carrying information) can travel through space.

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Spin (physics)

Spin is an intrinsic form of angular momentum carried by elementary particles, and thus by composite particles such as hadrons, atomic nuclei, and atoms.

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Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces (electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions – excluding gravity) in the universe and classifying all known elementary particles.

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Wiley (publisher)

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., commonly known as Wiley, is an American multinational publishing company that focuses on academic publishing and instructional materials.

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