Daqin & Sino-Roman relations - Unionpedia, the concept map

Al-Hira

Al-Hira (translit Middle Persian: Hērt) was an ancient city in Mesopotamia located south of what is now Kufa in south-central Iraq.

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Al-Karak

Al-Karak (الكرك) is a city in Jordan known for its medieval castle, the Kerak Castle.

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Alexandria

Alexandria (الإسكندرية; Ἀλεξάνδρεια, Coptic: Ⲣⲁⲕⲟϯ - Rakoti or ⲁⲗⲉⲝⲁⲛⲇⲣⲓⲁ) is the second largest city in Egypt and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast.

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Amber

Amber is fossilized tree resin.

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Ammianus Marcellinus

Ammianus Marcellinus, occasionally anglicised as Ammian (Greek: Αμμιανός Μαρκελλίνος; born, died 400), was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius).

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Ancient Rome

In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman civilisation from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD.

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Antoninus Pius

Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius (19 September AD 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from AD 138 to 161.

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Asbestos

Asbestos is a naturally occurring fibrous silicate mineral.

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Aurelian

Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus; 9 September 214 – November 275) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 270 to 275 during the Crisis of the Third Century.

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Aureus

The aureus (aurei, 'golden', used as a noun) was a gold coin of ancient Rome originally valued at 25 pure silver denarii (sin. denarius).

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Óc Eo

Óc Eo (Vietnamese) is an archaeological site in modern-day Óc Eo commune of Thoại Sơn District in An Giang Province of southern Vietnam.

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Ban Chao

Ban Chao (32–102 CE), courtesy name Zhongsheng, was a Chinese diplomat, explorer, and military general of the Eastern Han dynasty.

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Beijing

Beijing, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital of China.

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Book of Jin

The Book of Jin is an official Chinese historical text covering the history of the Jin dynasty from 266 to 420.

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Book of Liang

The Book of Liang was compiled under Yao Silian and completed in 635.

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Book of the Later Han

The Book of the Later Han, also known as the History of the Later Han and by its Chinese name Hou Hanshu, is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Later or Eastern Han.

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Bukhara

Bukhara (Uzbek; بخارا) is the seventh-largest city in Uzbekistan by population, with 280,187 residents.

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Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

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Byzantine medicine

Byzantine medicine encompasses the common medical practices of the Byzantine Empire from c. 400 AD to 1453 AD.

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Byzantine science

Scientific scholarship during the Byzantine Empire played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world and to Renaissance Italy, and also in the transmission of Islamic science to Renaissance Italy.

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Capital punishment

Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct.

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Cattigara

Cattigara is the name of a major port city located on the Magnus Sinus described by various antiquity sources.

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Chang'an

Chang'an is the traditional name of Xi'an.

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Charax Spasinu

Charax Spasinu, also called Charax Spasinou, Charax Pasinu, Spasinu Charax (ΣπασίνουΧάραξ), Alexandria (Greek: Ἀλεξάνδρεια) or Antiochia in Susiana (Greek: Ἀντιόχεια τῆς Σουσιανῆς), was an ancient port at the head of the Persian Gulf in modern day Iraq, and the capital of the ancient kingdom of Characene.

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Chinese language

Chinese is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China.

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Chinese name

Chinese names are personal names used by individuals from Greater China and other parts of the Sinophone world.

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Christian name

A Christian name, sometimes referred to as a baptismal name, is a religious personal name given on the occasion of a Christian baptism, though now most often given by parents at birth.

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Cinnabar

Cinnabar, or cinnabarite, also known as mercurblende is the bright scarlet to brick-red form of mercury(II) sulfide (HgS).

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Constans II

Constans II (Kōnstas; 7 November 630 – 15 July 668), also called "the Bearded" (Pogonatus; ho Pōgōnãtos), was the Byzantine emperor from 641 to 668.

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Constantinople

Constantinople (see other names) became the capital of the Roman Empire during the reign of Constantine the Great in 330.

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Coral

Corals are colonial marine invertebrates within the class Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria.

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Damascus

Damascus (Dimašq) is the capital and largest city of Syria, the oldest current capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth holiest city in Islam.

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Denarius

The denarius (dēnāriī) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus.

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Early Muslim conquests

The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests (translit), also known as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the founder of Islam.

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Eastern Wu

Wu (Chinese: 吳; pinyin: Wú; Middle Chinese *ŋuo Schuessler, Axel. (2009) Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i. p. 52), known in historiography as Eastern Wu or Sun Wu, was a dynastic state of China and one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period.

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Economy of the Han dynasty

The economy of the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) of ancient China experienced upward and downward movements in its economic cycle, periods of economic prosperity and decline.

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Egypt

Egypt (مصر), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and the Sinai Peninsula in the southwest corner of Asia.

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Emil Bretschneider

Emil Bretschneider (in Bankaushof (now Benkavas muiža, Saldus novads, Latvia) – in Saint Petersburg) was a sinologist of Baltic German ethnicity and a correspondent member of the Académie française.

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Emperor Huan of Han

Emperor Huan of Han (132 – 25 January 168) was the 27th emperor of the Han dynasty after he was enthroned by the Empress Dowager and her brother Liang Ji on 1 August 146.

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Emperor of China

Throughout Chinese history, "Emperor" was the superlative title held by the monarchs who ruled various imperial dynasties or Chinese empires.

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Emperor Shenzong of Song

The Emperor Shenzong of Song (25 May 1048 – 1 April 1085), personal name Zhao Xu, was the sixth emperor of the Song dynasty of China.

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Emperor Taizong of Tang

Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649.

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Emperor Wu of Jin

Emperor Wu of Jin (236 – 16 May 290), personal name Sima Yan, courtesy name Anshi (安世), was a grandson of Sima Yi, nephew of Sima Shi and son of Sima Zhao.

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Euphrates

The Euphrates (see below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia.

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Eurasian Steppe

The Eurasian Steppe, also called the Great Steppe or The Steppes, is the vast steppe ecoregion of Eurasia in the temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome.

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Europeans in Medieval China

Given textual and archaeological evidence, it is thought that thousands of Europeans lived in Imperial China during the Yuan dynasty.

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Florus

Three main sets of works are attributed to Florus (a Roman cognomen): Virgilius orator an poeta, the Epitome of Roman History and a collection of 14 short poems (66 lines in all).

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Fordham University

Fordham University is a private Jesuit research university in New York City.

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Friedrich Hirth

Friedrich Hirth Ph.D. (16 April 1845 in Gräfentonna, Saxe-Gotha – 10 January 1927 in Munich) was a German-American sinologist.

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Funan

Funan (Hvunân,; Phù Nam, Chữ Hán: 夫南) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states (Mandala)—located in mainland Southeast Asia covering parts of present-day Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam that existed from the first to sixth century CE.

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Gan Ying

Gan Ying (fl. 97 AD) was a Chinese diplomat, explorer, and military official who was sent on a mission to the Roman Empire to find out more about it in 97 CE by the Chinese military general Ban Chao.

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Güyük Khan

Güyük Khan (also Güyük Khagan, Güyük or Güyug; 19 March 1206 – 20 April 1248) was the third Khagan of the Mongol Empire, the eldest son of Ögedei Khan and a grandson of Genghis Khan.

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Gemstone

A gemstone (also called a fine gem, jewel, precious stone, semiprecious stone, or simply gem) is a piece of mineral crystal which, when cut or polished, is used to make jewelry or other adornments.

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Geography (Ptolemy)

The Geography (Γεωγραφικὴ Ὑφήγησις,, "Geographical Guidance"), also known by its Latin names as the Geographia and the Cosmographia, is a gazetteer, an atlas, and a treatise on cartography, compiling the geographical knowledge of the 2nd-century Roman Empire.

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Glass

Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid.

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Golden Chersonese

The Golden Chersonese or Golden Khersonese (Χρυσῆ Χερσόνησος, Chrysḗ Chersónēsos; Chersonesus Aurea), meaning the Golden Peninsula, was the name used for the Malay Peninsula by Greek and Roman geographers in classical antiquity, most famously in Claudius Ptolemy's 2nd-century Geography.

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Gulf of Thailand

The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula.

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Han Chinese

The Han Chinese or the Han people, or colloquially known as the Chinese are an East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China.

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Han dynasty

The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu.

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Henry Yule

Colonel Sir Henry Yule (1 May 1820 – 30 December 1889) was a Scottish Orientalist and geographer.

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History of Iran

The history of Iran (or Persia, as it was commonly known in the Western world) is intertwined with that of Greater Iran, a sociocultural region spanning the area between Anatolia in the west and the Indus River and Syr Darya in the east, and between the Caucasus and Eurasian Steppe in the north and the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in the south.

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History of Ming

The History of Ming is the final official Chinese history included in the Twenty-Four Histories.

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History of Song (book)

The History of Song or Song Shi is one of the official Chinese historical works known as the Twenty-Four Histories of China that records the history of the Song dynasty (960–1279).

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History of the Han dynasty

The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) was the second imperial dynasty of China.

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History of the Ming dynasty

The Ming dynasty (23 January 1368 – 25 April 1644), officially the Great Ming, founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor, was an imperial dynasty of China.

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History of the Roman Empire

The history of the Roman Empire covers the history of ancient Rome from the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the abdication of Romulus Augustulus in AD 476 in the West, and the Fall of Constantinople in the East in AD 1453.

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History of Yuan

The History of Yuan, also known as the Yuanshi, is one of the official Chinese historical works known as the Twenty-Four Histories of China.

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Homs

Homs (حِمْص / ALA-LC:; Levantine Arabic: حُمْص / Ḥomṣ), known in pre-Islamic Syria as Emesa (Émesa), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate.

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Hongwu Emperor

Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1368 to 1398.

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Horace

Quintus Horatius Flaccus (8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC),Suetonius,. commonly known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his Odes as the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words."Quintilian 10.1.96. The only other lyrical poet Quintilian thought comparable with Horace was the now obscure poet/metrical theorist, Caesius Bassus (R. Tarrant, Ancient Receptions of Horace, 280) Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses (Satires and Epistles) and caustic iambic poetry (Epodes). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist Persius to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings".Translated from Persius' own 'Satires' 1.116–17: "omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico / tangit et admissus circum praecordia ludit." His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas, and became a spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep")J. Michie, The Odes of Horace, 14 but for others he was, in John Dryden's phrase, "a well-mannered court slave".Quoted by N. Rudd from John Dryden's Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire, excerpted from W.P.Ker's edition of Dryden's essays, Oxford 1926, vol. 2, pp. 86–87.

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Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approx.

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Indo-Roman trade relations

Indo-Roman trade relations (see also the spice trade and incense road) was trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire in Europe and the Mediterranean Sea.

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Iranian peoples

The Iranian peoples or Iranic peoples are a diverse grouping of peoples who are identified by their usage of the Iranian languages (branch of the Indo-European languages) and other cultural similarities.

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Iskandariya

Al-Iskandariya or Alexandria (الإسكندرية, also given as Iskandariyah, Iskanderiyah, Iskanderiya, Iskanderiyeh or Sikandariyeh or Al Askandariyah) is an ancient city in central Iraq, one of a number of towns in the Near East founded by and named after Alexander the Great (Al-Iskandar in Arabic).

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Jiaozhi

Jiaozhi (standard Chinese, pinyin: Jiāozhǐ), or Giao Chỉ, was a historical region ruled by various Chinese dynasties, corresponding to present-day northern Vietnam.

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Jiaozhou (region)

Jiaozhou (Wade–Giles: Chiao1-Cho1; Giao Châu) was an imperial Chinese province under the Han and Jin dynasties.

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John of Montecorvino

John of Montecorvino or Giovanni da Montecorvino in Italian (1247 – 1328) was an Italian Franciscan missionary, traveller and statesman, founder of the earliest Latin Catholic missions in India and China, and archbishop of Peking.

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Khanbaliq

Khanbaliq (style, Qaɣan balɣasu) or Dadu of Yuan (ᠳᠠᠶ᠋ᠢᠳᠤ, Dayidu) was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, the capital of China today.

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Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder and first emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China.

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Latin

Latin (lingua Latina,, or Latinum) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages.

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Li (unit)

Li (lǐ, or 市里, shìlǐ), also known as the Chinese mile, is a traditional Chinese unit of distance.

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Ma Duanlin

Ma Duanlin (1245–1322) was a Chinese historical writer and encyclopaedist.

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Malay Peninsula

The Malay Peninsula is located in Mainland Southeast Asia.

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Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (English:; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher.

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Matteo Ricci

Matteo Ricci (Matthaeus Riccius; 6 October 1552 – 11 May 1610) was an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions.

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Medal

A medal or medallion is a small portable artistic object, a thin disc, normally of metal, carrying a design, usually on both sides.

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Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, on the east by the Levant in West Asia, and on the west almost by the Morocco–Spain border.

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Michael VII Doukas

Michael VII Doukas or Ducas (Mikhaḗl Doúkas), nicknamed Parapinakes (Παραπινάκης, lit. "minus a quarter", with reference to the devaluation of the Byzantine currency under his rule), was the senior Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078.

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Middle Egypt

Middle Egypt is the section of land between Lower Egypt (the Nile Delta) and Upper Egypt, stretching upstream from Asyut in the south to Memphis in the north.

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Ming dynasty

The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty.

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Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous empire in history.

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Mu'awiya I

Mu'awiya I (Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān; –April 680) was the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from 661 until his death.

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Nabataean Kingdom

The Nabataean Kingdom (Nabataean Aramaic: 𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈 Nabāṭū), also named Nabatea, was a political state of the Nabataeans during classical antiquity.

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Names of China

The names of China include the many contemporary and historical designations given in various languages for the East Asian country known as in Standard Chinese, a form based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin.

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Nestorianism

Nestorianism is a term used in Christian theology and Church history to refer to several mutually related but doctrinarily distinct sets of teachings.

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New Book of Tang

The New Book of Tang, generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters.

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Nile

The Nile (also known as the Nile River) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa.

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Nile Delta

The Nile Delta (دلتا النيل, or simply الدلتا) is the delta formed in Lower Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea.

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Old Book of Tang

The Old Book of Tang, or simply the Book of Tang, is the first classic historical work about the Tang dynasty, comprising 200 chapters, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories.

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Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions.

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Palmyra

Palmyra (Palmyrene:, romanized: Tadmor; Tadmur) is an ancient city in the eastern part of the Levant, now in the center of modern Syria.

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Parthia

Parthia (𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Parθava; 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅Parθaw; 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 Pahlaw) is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran.

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Parthian Empire

The Parthian Empire, also known as the Arsacid Empire, was a major Iranian political and cultural power centered in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD.

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Pei Songzhi

Pei Songzhi (372–451), courtesy name Shiqi, was a Chinese historian and politician who lived in the late Eastern Jin dynasty and the Liu Song dynasty.

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Persian Gulf

The Persian Gulf (Fars), sometimes called the (Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a mediterranean sea in West Asia.

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Petra

Petra (Al-Batrāʾ; Πέτρα, "Rock"), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu (Nabataean: or, *Raqēmō), is a historic and archaeological city in southern Jordan.

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Pinyin

Hanyu Pinyin, or simply pinyin, is the most common romanization system for Standard Chinese.

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Poena cullei

Poena cullei (Latin, 'penalty of the sack') under Roman law was a type of death penalty imposed on a subject who had been found guilty of patricide.

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Pomponius Mela

Pomponius Mela, who wrote around AD 43, was the earliest known Roman geographer.

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Pontoon bridge

A pontoon bridge (or ponton bridge), also known as a floating bridge, uses floats or shallow-draft boats to support a continuous deck for pedestrian and vehicle travel.

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Principate

The Principate was the form of imperial government of the Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Augustus in 27 BC to the end of the Crisis of the Third Century in AD 284, after which it evolved into the Dominate.

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Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy (Πτολεμαῖος,; Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was an Alexandrian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine, Islamic, and Western European science.

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Qin (state)

Qin (or Ch'in) was an ancient Chinese state during the Zhou dynasty.

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Qin dynasty

The Qin dynasty was the first dynasty of Imperial China.

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Qin Shi Huang

Qin Shi Huang (February 25912 July 210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of China.

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Rafe de Crespigny

Richard Rafe Champion de Crespigny (born 1936), also known by his Chinese name Zhang Leifu, is an Australian sinologist and historian.

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Records of the Three Kingdoms

The Records of the Three Kingdoms is a Chinese official history written by Chen Shou in the late 3rd century CE, covering the end of the Han dynasty (220 CE) and the subsequent Three Kingdoms period (220–280 CE).

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Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Beijing

The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Beijing (Archidioecesis Pechimensis) is a Metropolitan Latin archdiocese in the People's Republic of China.

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Roman commerce

Roman commerce was a major sector of the Roman economy during the later generations of the Republic and throughout most of the imperial period.

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Roman currency

Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum and copper coinage.

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Roman Egypt

Roman Egypt; was an imperial province of the Roman Empire from 30 BC to AD 641.

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Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the state ruled by the Romans following Octavian's assumption of sole rule under the Principate in 27 BC, the post-Republican state of ancient Rome.

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Roman glass

Roman glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts.

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Roman Republic

The Roman Republic (Res publica Romana) was the era of classical Roman civilization beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire following the War of Actium.

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Samarkand

Samarkand or Samarqand (Uzbek and Tajik: Самарқанд / Samarqand) is a city in southeastern Uzbekistan and among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central Asia.

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Scythians

The Scythians or Scyths (but note Scytho- in composition) and sometimes also referred to as the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern Iranic equestrian nomadic people who had migrated during the 9th to 8th centuries BC from Central Asia to the Pontic Steppe in modern-day Ukraine and Southern Russia, where they remained established from the 7th century BC until the 3rd century BC.

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Sea silk

Sea silk is an extremely fine, rare, and valuable fabric that is made from the long silky filaments or byssus secreted by a gland in the foot of pen shells (in particular Pinna nobilis).

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Serica

Serica (Σηρικά) was one of the easternmost countries of Asia known to the Ancient Greek and Roman geographers.

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Siege of Constantinople (674–678)

The first Arab siege of Constantinople in 674–678 was a major conflict of the Arab–Byzantine wars, and the first culmination of the Umayyad Caliphate's expansionist strategy towards the Byzantine Empire, led by Caliph Mu'awiya I. Mu'awiya, who had emerged in 661 as the ruler of the Muslim Arab empire following a civil war, renewed aggressive warfare against Byzantium after a lapse of some years and hoped to deliver a lethal blow by capturing the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.

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Silk

Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles.

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Silk Road

The Silk Road was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century.

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Sogdia

Sogdia or Sogdiana was an ancient Iranian civilization between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, and in present-day Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.

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Solidus (coin)

The solidus (Latin 'solid';: solidi) or nomisma (νόμισμα, nómisma, 'coin') was a highly pure gold coin issued in the Later Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire.

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South China Sea

The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean.

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Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia is the geographical southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Australian mainland, which is part of Oceania.

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Strabo

StraboStrabo (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed.

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Sun Quan

Sun Quan (182 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (仲謀), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of Eastern Wu, one of the Three Kingdoms of China.

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Syriac language

The Syriac language (Leššānā Suryāyā), also known natively in its spoken form in early Syriac literature as Edessan (Urhāyā), the Mesopotamian language (Nahrāyā) and Aramaic (Aramāyā), is an Eastern Middle Aramaic dialect. Classical Syriac is the academic term used to refer to the dialect's literary usage and standardization, distinguishing it from other Aramaic dialects also known as 'Syriac' or 'Syrian'. In its West-Syriac tradition, Classical Syriac is often known as leššōnō kṯoḇonōyō or simply kṯoḇonōyō, or kṯowonōyō, while in its East-Syriac tradition, it is known as leššānā ʔatīqā or saprāyā. It emerged during the first century AD from a local Eastern Aramaic dialect that was spoken in the ancient region of Osroene, centered in the city of Edessa. During the Early Christian period, it became the main literary language of various Aramaic-speaking Christian communities in the historical region of Ancient Syria and throughout the Near East. As a liturgical language of Syriac Christianity, it gained a prominent role among Eastern Christian communities that used both Eastern Syriac and Western Syriac rites. Following the spread of Syriac Christianity, it also became a liturgical language of eastern Christian communities as far as India and China. It flourished from the 4th to the 8th century, and continued to have an important role during the next centuries, but by the end of the Middle Ages it was gradually reduced to liturgical use, since the role of vernacular language among its native speakers was overtaken by several emerging Neo-Aramaic languages. Classical Syriac is written in the Syriac alphabet, a derivation of the Aramaic alphabet. The language is preserved in a large body of Syriac literature, that comprises roughly 90% of the extant Aramaic literature. Along with Greek and Latin, Syriac became one of the three most important languages of Early Christianity. Already from the first and second centuries AD, the inhabitants of the region of Osroene began to embrace Christianity, and by the third and fourth centuries, local Edessan Aramaic language became the vehicle of the specific Christian culture that came to be known as the Syriac Christianity. Because of theological differences, Syriac-speaking Christians diverged during the 5th century into the Church of the East that followed the East Syriac Rite under the Persian rule, and the Syriac Orthodox Church that followed the West Syriac Rite under the Byzantine rule. As a liturgical language of Syriac Christianity, Classical Syriac spread throughout Asia as far as the South Indian Malabar Coast, and Eastern China, and became the medium of communication and cultural dissemination for the later Arabs, and (to a lesser extent) the other peoples of Parthian and Sasanian empires. Primarily a Christian medium of expression, Syriac had a fundamental cultural and literary influence on the development of Arabic, which largely replaced it during the later medieval period. Syriac remains the sacred language of Syriac Christianity to this day. It is used as liturgical language of several denominations, like those who follow the East Syriac Rite, including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, and the Assyrian Pentecostal Church, and also those who follow the West Syriac Rite, including: Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Catholic Church, the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church. Classical Syriac was originally the liturgical language of the Syriac Melkites within the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch in Antioch and parts of ancient Syria. The Syriac Melkites changed their church's West Syriac Rite to that of Constantinople in the 9th-11th centuries, necessitating new translations of all their Syriac liturgical books.

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Tang dynasty

The Tang dynasty (唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an interregnum between 690 and 705.

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Thebaid

The Thebaid or Thebais (Θηβαΐς, Thēbaïs) was a region in ancient Egypt, comprising the 13 southernmost nomes of Upper Egypt, from Abydos to Aswan.

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Theodosius II

Theodosius II (Θεοδόσιος; 10 April 401 – 28 July 450) was Roman emperor from 402 to 450.

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Tianzhu (India)

Tianzhu is the historical Chinese name for India.

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Tiberius

Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37.

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Trajan

Trajan (born Marcus Ulpius Traianus, adopted name Caesar Nerva Traianus; 18 September 53) was a Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117, remembered as the second of the Five Good Emperors of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty.

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Transliteration

Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus trans- + liter-) in predictable ways, such as Greek →, Cyrillic →, Greek → the digraph, Armenian → or Latin →.

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Umayyad Caliphate

The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty.

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Valerie Hansen

Valerie Hansen is an American historian.

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Vassal

A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe.

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Vietnam

Vietnam, officially the (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's fifteenth-most populous country.

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Virgil

Publius Vergilius Maro (traditional dates 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period.

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Wade–Giles

Wade–Giles is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese.

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Walls of Constantinople

The Walls of Constantinople (Konstantinopolis Surları; Τείχη της Κωνσταντινουπόλης) are a series of defensive stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey) since its founding as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine the Great.

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Warwick Ball

Warwick Ball is an Australia-born Near-Eastern archaeologist.

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Weilüe

The Weilüe was a Chinese historical text written by Yu Huan between 239 and 265.

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Wenxian Tongkao

The Wenxian Tongkao or Tongkao was one of the model works of the Tongdian compiled by Ma Duanlin in 1317, during the Yuan Dynasty.

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Wild silk

Wild silks have been known and used in many countries from early times, although the scale of production is far smaller than that from cultivated silkworms.

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Xi'an

Xi'an is the capital of Shaanxi Province.

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Xi'an Stele

The Xi'an Stele or the Jingjiao Stele (p), sometimes translated as the "Nestorian Stele," is a Tang Chinese stele erected in 781 that documents 150 years of early Christianity in China.

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Xinjiang

Xinjiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwest of the country at the crossroads of Central Asia and East Asia.

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Yellow River

The Yellow River is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze; with an estimated length of it is the sixth-longest river system on Earth.

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Yu Huan

Yu Huan (third century) was a Chinese historian and travel writer of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period.

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Yu Ying-shih

Yu Ying-shih (22 January 1930 – 1 August 2021) was a Chinese-born American historian, sinologist, and the Gordon Wu '58 Professor of Chinese Studies, Emeritus, at Princeton University.

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Yuan dynasty

The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan (Mongolian:, Yeke Yuwan Ulus, literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its ''de facto'' division.

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Zeugma (Commagene)

Zeugma (Ζεῦγμα; ܙܘܓܡܐ) was an ancient Hellenistic era Greek and then Roman city of Commagene; located in modern Gaziantep Province, Turkey.

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Zhang Qian

Zhang Qian (died c. 114 BC) was a Chinese diplomat, explorer, and politician who served as an imperial envoy to the world outside of China in the late 2nd century BC during the Western Han dynasty.

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