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Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (translit) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

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Abu Hanifa

Abu Hanifa (translit; September 699–767) was a Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, theologian, ascetic,Pakatchi, Ahmad and Umar, Suheyl, "Abū Ḥanīfa", in: Encyclopaedia Islamica, Editors-in-Chief: Wilferd Madelung and, Farhad Daftary.

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Ahmad ibn Hanbal

Ahmad ibn Hanbal (translit; November 780 – 2 August 855) was a Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, theologian, traditionist, ascetic and eponym of the Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence—one of the four major orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam.

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Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula.

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Al-Shafi'i

Al-Shafi'i (translit;;767–820 CE) was a Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, traditionist, theologian, ascetic, and eponym of the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence.

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Apostasy in Islam

Apostasy in Islam (translit or label) is commonly defined as the abandonment of Islam by a Muslim, in thought, word, or through deed.

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Charles Kurzman

Charles Kurzman is a professor of sociology at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill who specializes in Middle East and Islamic studies.

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Chiragh Ali

Moulví Cherágh Ali (1844–1895) (also spelled Chirágh) was an Indian Muslim scholar of the late 19th century.

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Companions of the Prophet

The Companions of the Prophet (lit) were the disciples and followers of Muhammad who saw or met him during his lifetime, while being a Muslim and were physically in his presence.

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Faqīh

A faqīh (fuqahā, فقيه;: ‏فقهاء&lrm) is an Islamic jurist, an expert in fiqh, or Islamic jurisprudence and Islamic Law.

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Fiqh

Fiqh (فقه) is Islamic jurisprudence.

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From Border to Border

A research study entitled From Border to Border was by Kameel Ahmady, a British Iranian anthropologist and social researcher, and his colleagues to examine the challenges and opportunities of ethnic and local identities in Iran and the interaction of the political system with various ethnic groups and local identities between 2019 and 2021 in 13 provinces of Iran.

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Gerhard Böwering

Professor Gerhard Böwering is a German academic, currently Professor of Islamic Studies within the Department of Religious Studies, Yale University.

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Hadith

Hadith (translit) or Athar (أثر) is a form of Islamic oral tradition containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the prophet Muhammad.

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Hanbali school

The Hanbali school or Hanbalism (translit) is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam.

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Ijma

Ijma (lit) is an Arabic term referring to the consensus or agreement of the Islamic community on a point of Islamic law.

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Islamic schools and branches

Islamic schools and branches have different understandings of Islam.

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Istihsan

(Arabic) is an Arabic term for juristic discretion.

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Ja'far al-Sadiq

Ja'far ibn Muhammad al-Sadiq (translit; –765 CE) was a Shia Muslim scholar, jurist, and theologian, and the sixth imam of the Twelver and Isma'ili branches of Shia Islam.

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Madhhab

A madhhab (way to act,, pl. label) refers to any school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence.

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Malik ibn Anas

Malik ibn Anas (translit; –795) was an Islamic scholar and traditionalist who is the eponym of the Maliki school, one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence in Sunni Islam.

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Maliki school

The Maliki school or Malikism (translit) is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam.

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Maslaha

Maslaha or maslahah (مصلحة) is a concept in Sharia (Islamic divine law) regarded as a basis of law.

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Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, historically and colloquially known as the Turkish Empire, was an imperial realm centered in Anatolia that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Central Europe, between the early 16th and early 18th centuries. The empire emerged from a ''beylik'', or principality, founded in northwestern Anatolia in 1299 by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. His successors conquered much of Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans by the mid-14th century, transforming their petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, which marked the Ottomans' emergence as a major regional power. Under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), the empire reached the peak of its power, prosperity, and political development. By the start of the 17th century, the Ottomans presided over 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, which over time were either absorbed into the Empire or granted various degrees of autonomy. With its capital at Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) and control over a significant portion of the Mediterranean Basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Middle East and Europe for six centuries. While the Ottoman Empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind those of its chief European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian empires. The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in the loss of both territory and global prestige. This prompted a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the; over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged. Beginning in the late 19th century, various Ottoman intellectuals sought to further liberalize society and politics along European lines, culminating in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 led by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which established the Second Constitutional Era and introduced competitive multi-party elections under a constitutional monarchy. However, following the disastrous Balkan Wars, the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic, leading a coup d'état in 1913 that established a one-party regime. The CUP allied with the Germany Empire hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation that had contributed to its recent territorial losses; it thus joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers. While the empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it struggled with internal dissent, especially the Arab Revolt. During this period, the Ottoman government engaged in genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks. In the aftermath of World War I, the victorious Allied Powers occupied and partitioned the Ottoman Empire, which lost its southern territories to the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the occupying Allies, led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy in 1922, formally ending the Ottoman Empire.

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Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press (OUP) is the publishing house of the University of Oxford.

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Pakistan

Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia.

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Principles of Islamic jurisprudence

Principles of Islamic jurisprudence (translit) are traditional methodological principles used in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) for deriving the rulings of Islamic law (sharia).

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Qiyas

In Islamic jurisprudence, qiyas (قياس) is the process of deductive analogy in which the teachings of the hadith are compared and contrasted with those of the Quran, in order to apply a known injunction (nass) to a new circumstance and create a new injunction.

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Quran

The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God (Allah).

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Rowman & Littlefield

Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group is an American independent academic publishing company founded in 1949.

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Salah

Salah is the principal form of worship in Islam.

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Shafi'i school

The Shafi'i school or Shafi'ism (translit) is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam.

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Sharia

Sharia (sharīʿah) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and hadith.

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Sunnah

In Islam,, also spelled (سنة), is the traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow.

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Sunni Islam

Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims, and simultaneously the largest religious denomination in the world.

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Syria

Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant.

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Turkey

Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly in Anatolia in West Asia, with a smaller part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe.

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Ulama

In Islam, the ulama (the learned ones; singular ʿālim; feminine singular alimah; plural aalimath), also spelled ulema, are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law.

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University of Chicago Press

The University of Chicago Press is the university press of the University of Chicago, a private research university in Chicago, Illinois.

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Urf

(العرف) is an Arabic Islamic term referring to the custom, or 'knowledge', of a given society.

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