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Lithuanians (tribe) - Wikipedia

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Lithuanians

Ancient Lithuanian lands by the
11th–12th centuries

Regions with significant populations
Eastern Lithuania
Languages
Old Lithuanian
Religion
Lithuanian paganism
Related ethnic groups
Latgalians, Yotvingians, Selonians

The Lithuanians (Latin: Letwini;[1] Low German: Lettowen;[2] Old East Slavic: Литъва, Литва;[3][a] Old Swedish: lättugha;[4] modern Lithuanian: rytiniai senlietuviai, senlietuviai) were one of the largest East Baltic tribes, inhabiting present-day Eastern Lithuania in the 5th–13th centuries.[5] Following the Northern Crusades, the ancient Lithuanians began gradually assimilating other neighbouring Baltic tribes, becoming the primary progenitor group of modern Lithuanians.

It is believed that ancient Lithuania covered around 80,000 km2 and was home to around 300,000 inhabitants, most of them living as farmers.[6] Traditionally historians divide the area into six attested lands — Nalšia, Deltuva, Upytė, Lietuva, Neris and Deremela,[b] with Lietuva (Lethowia)[1] passing on its name to the entire country. There was a seventh land laying in between Neris, Merkinė and Neman rivers but no records of its name remain.[7] Ancient Lithuania stretched from the middle reaches of Neman to the Southeast of Šventoji.

Because of the three archaeological cultures in Lithuania, some scholars divide the Lithuanian ethnos into three cultural groups — Samogitians (Western), Aukštaitians[c] (Central) and Lithuanians (Eastern). Traditionally, the Samogitian tribe is included within the broader Lithuanian ethnos as suggested by historical accounts, dividing Lithuania into two parts — Austechia (Aukštaitija) and Samogitia (Žemaitija)[8][9] — but their origins are a subject of ongoing debates. Linguist Jūratė Sofija Laučiūtė argues that prior to their assimilation, ancient Samogitians were a different tribe from the Lithuanians, which is evinced by certain linguistic features not explainable by phonetics alone, such as the ending -ou <*-ou of masculine nouns in genitive form (e.g. Samogitian velkou, Lithuanian vilkui, meaning (DAT) 'wolf'). Valdemaras Šimėnas suggests that both culturally and linguistically ancient Samogitians were closer to Curonians, Semigallians and Selonians than Lithuanians.[10] In the late 12th century, Samogitians and Lithuanians formed a tribal union, which was the basis for the future Lithuanian state.[11]

Lithuania proper consisted of two archaeological cultural areas — Central and Eastern — with the former never becoming a continuous ethnopolitical unit.[12] Though contested, based on the spread of cremation and West Baltic acculturation, it is believed that the Aukštaitians were a consequence of westward Lithuanian migration into a Samogitian heterogenous cultural zone, driven by Slavic expansion.[13][14] Central Lithuanian culture existed in the 6th–12th centuries, reaching its prosperity in the 9th–11th centuries. Burial practices and ceramics indicate that Central Lithuania was affected by the West Baltic cultures and belonged to the zone of maritime influence. Recent archeological research reveal that Vikings navigated the Neman River, engaging in trade with the local populations, whereas Kaunas emerged as a significant economic and political trading centre.[15] Lithuanians were familiar with surrounding waterways around the Baltic Sea and the Curonian Lagoon, initially possessing fluvial watercraft. Their first maritime vessels were likely oar-powered and equipped with a single sail, which were subsequently replaced by cogs.[16] By the early 13th century, Lithuanian ships ventured into the Baltic Sea and reached the shores of Gotland where they would trade goods such as amber, honey, beeswax, flax, hemp or ash — it lasted until 1229 when Pope Gregory IX restricted the rights of traders and banned the practice of selling goods to the heathens.[17] In the 12th–13th centuries, Eastern Lithuania witnessed notable social and economic development, fostering advancements in trade, artisantry and political stability. In contrast, the western Baltic regions experienced a decline, as indicated by the substantially greater number of archaeological monetary finds in Eastern Lithuania.[18] From the 13th century, as trade relations advanced, ancient Lithuanians began using their own currency — long silver ingots with cut marks — known as ilgasis.[19]

Society and culture

[edit]

Archaeologist Laurynas Kurila believes that by the 5th century, the Lithuanians began adopting a war-based societal model found in military democracies.[20] The tribal society was governed following the customary law and was based on a hierarchical structure consisting of four divisions — a duke, soldiers, free peasants (laukininkai) and slaves (šeimynykščiai). By the 9th century, a chieftain gradually became known as kunigas. Commencing in the 12th century, each ruler began to govern a particular land through hereditary succession and adopting the title kunigaikštis.[21]

In ancient Lithuanian culture, religious suicide was practised and likely common. The Lithuanians were known to engage in acts of honour suicide by sacrificing themselves to their gods or after defeat in battle.[22] In addition, Lithuanian women would take their own lives following the loss of their husbands. The latter custom was attested by Henry of Latvia when 50 Lithuanian wives of the defeated warriors chose to hang themselves to reunite with them in the afterlife.[23] In a letter from Pope Honorius III written in 1218, it is said that the Lithuanians practice human sacrifice of war captives to their gods.[24]

The deceased tribespeople were buried in the ground and by the 7th–8th centuries, cremation became widespread throughout the area.[25] They were positioned with men's heads facing West and women's heads facing East.[26] The Lithuanians dedicated separate burial mounds to the riding horses, sometimes half of an entire kurgan.[27] The Lithuanians had the custom of purposely breaking weapons as well as jewellery when burning the deceased — this was probably done to send these items to the afterlife. They also produced small axes only used during funeral rites.[28]

Lithuanian soldiers were equipped with stabbing spears with socketed spearheads, throwing spears with hafted spearheads as well as shields as early as the 5th century. Both types of spears have been in use until the 9th century whereas the most recent shields date to the 8th century.[29] From the late 5th century, the Lithuanians also possessed ornamented battle axes and, as of the 10th century, they began crafting light, usually adorned, broad-bladed battle axes.[30] The findings in Varliškis and Čiobiškis burial mounds suggest that axes with narrow blades and blunt ends were also used as weapons until the 10th–11th century.[31] Both one-edged and two-edged swords are rarely found as they were probably expensive to produce and only wealthy chieftains could obtain them.[32] Around the 11th–12th century, the first chainmail armour started to appear.[33]

A page from The Chronicle of Novgorod describing the Lithuanian campaign of 1183.

The Lithuanians were known as fierce warriors who constantly raided neighbouring lands, predominantly in Northeastern Europe,[34] seeking to capture people, cattle and horses.[35] Kievan Rus’ chronicles attest that the Lithuanians were defeated by Yaroslav the Wise and paid Kievan Rus’ tribute. Nonetheless, it remains unclear when exactly the said battle happened: both the Russian Primary Chronicle and The Chronicle of Novgorod mention one attack against the Lithuanians, with the first record claiming it took place in 1040 and the second one stating it happened in 1044.[36] Birchbark manuscript 590 mentions a Lithuanian military campaign against Karelia in c. 1060–80.[37] In the 11th century, the Lithuanians were recorded crossing the Orsha River and devastating surrounding locations.[38]

In 1131, Mstislav I of Kiev launched a campaign against Lithuania, but when the Kievans were heading back, the Lithuanians retaliated by annihilating one of their detachments.[39] By 1158, Lithuania was acting as a sovereign early feudal proto-state.[40] From the late 12th century, their number of military campaigns spiked. In 1183, The Chronicle of Novgorod mentions a Lithuanian attack on Pskov, marking the start of numerous raids against them.[41] A record from The Tale of Igor’s Campaign compares the devastating impact of the Lithuanian incursions to that of the Polovtsians.[42] Further incursions in 1185–86 led to Lithuanians taking many Livonian captives,[43] prompting the Livs to seek protection from Bishop Meinhard.[44] In 1187, their forces targeted the vicinity of Polotsk, resulting in the death of Iziaslav.[45] In 1188, the Lithuanians made an alliance with the Swedes against Novgorod.[46] Their plundering continued as they raided Karelia in 1191[47] as well as the countryside of Velikiye Luki in 1198.[34] Russa, a Novgorodian town south of Lake Ilmen, was likely fortified the following year in response to these raidings.[48]

In 1200, the Lithuanians devastated the lands near Lovat doing "whatever they pleased".[34] In 1201–02, they started a war raid against Semigallia, yet their plans were disrupted by an attack of the Principality of Polotsk on Lithuania itself.[42] In 1203, they allied with the Principality of Jersika and stormed Riga, taking the livestock of its residents.[49] In 1205, a band of 2,000 Lithuanians led by Žvelgaitis[50] marched into Estonia and returned with "countless captives [possibly more than 1,000 Estonians] and an ineffable number of cattle and horses."[51] However, their victorious return with booty and prisoners of war was marred by an ambush of the allied Semigallian and German forces.[52][53] On Christmas Day of 1207, they stormed Treiden (Turaida), Livonia and looted the countryside, including the house of a priest.[53][54] The raiders also took prisoners most of whom were women and children.[35] In 1208, Semigallians and Germans invaded Lithuania, only to find its villages abandoned. On their way back home, the enemy was then attacked by Lithuanian raiders who defeated them and took many captives.[55] In 1209, Henry of Latvia described the Lithuanians as ruthless people whose neighbours live in constant fear and endure their relentless raids:

At that time, the Lithuanians so dominated over all the tribes living in these [neighbouring] lands, be they Christians or heathens, that few dared to live in their villages, especially the Latgalians who dared the least. Leaving their homes deserted, they always sought hideouts in the dark woods, but even so, they could not escape them because [the Lithuanians], constantly lurking in the forests, would capture and kill them, take others as captives, bring them to their land, and strip them of all their belongings. And Ruthenians fled through the woods and villages from the Lithuanians, even if they were few, as hares flee from a hunter, and the Livs and the Latgalians became food and fodder for the Lithuanians as sheep without a shepherd, trapped among a pack of wolves.[56]

The frequency of certain raids in the 1210s is likely related to the connections shared by the Lithuanians and Estonians who at times might have collaborated with one another — during a Novgorodian invasion of an Estonian vicinity, the Lithuanians invaded Novgorod.[57] In 1212, ancient Lithuanians returned to Estonia again and pillaged Sakala.[58] The following year, they raided Lennewarden (Lielvārde)[59] and burned down Pskov.[60] In 1219, Ösel (Saaremaa) faced a brutal onslaught by 1,500 Lithuanian raiders who landed in Sõrve,[61] ravaged the island and killed its locals:

Deluded by their bravery / They went through all the land [...] / All paths, and also tracks / Were covered rich in blood [...] / They taught folk how to die / Both men and women / If only they have failed to flee.[62]

Baltic tribes listed in the Danish Census Book (Liber Census Daniae)

Frequent campaigns on Novgorod by the Lithuanians in 1217, 1218, 1223, 1224, 1226, 1230 and 1234 severely weakened Novgorodians as they struggled to mount effective defences or swift counterattacks.[63] The increased focus on the Rus’ principalities was also facilitated by making a truce with Riga in 1226, after which 7,000 Lithuanian soldiers sacked Torzhok and Toropets.[64] From the 1230s, following the conquest of other neighbouring tribes, the Christian military orders in both the North and Southwest began posing an existential threat to the Lithuanians. As of 1231, the Danish Census Book mentions Lithuania (Littonia) as well as many other Baltic lands paying tribute to the Danes who ultimately did not succeed in subjugating them.[65] In late 1244, the Curonians, Samogitians and Lithuanians stormed Amboten Castle (Embūte), which the Livonian Order had taken over the previous year.[66] The Novgorod Fourth Chronicle mentions that the Lithuanians killed Mikhail Khorobrit during the Battle of Protva in 1248.[67]

In July 1251, with Mindaugas securing a crown from the pope, Lithuania was granted the status of a Catholic kingdom. Nonetheless, the period of peace between Lithuania and the Crusader states was short-lived. In 1258–59, despite withstanding a devastating Mongolian incursion, Lithuania was in political turmoil with its pro-pagan noblemen pushing for a renouncement of their alliance with the Livonian Order and securing favourable relations with the Tatars instead.[68]

In 1263, the Lithuanians sacked Pernau (Pärnu) and burned down its newly built Osilian-Maritimian cathedral city, Perona.[69] Unhindered, they marched further north and attacked Wiek (Läänemaa) as the Livonian knights who were protecting this land were sent away to Courland.[70] In 1270, the Battle of Karuse on frozen ice near the island of Mohn (Muhu) ensued: after returning from a raid campaign, the Lithuanians were unexpectedly attacked by the Livonian Brothers. However, they came out victorious against the knights, killing Master Otto of Luttenberg.[71] According to Peter of Dusburg, Knight Commander of Ragnit Ludwig of Liebenzell sailed to Aukštaitija and "took part in many laudable battles in many campaigns at sea" against the Lithuanians from 1294 to 1300.[72] In 1295, Teutonic Knights sailed the Neman River, pillaging a nearby Lithuanian village and taking captives on the way, but were then attacked by Lithuanian boats. Despite Lithuanians suffering the loss of 70 warriors, the Crusaders were ultimately defeated, with approximately 30 casualties, including that of Friar Dietrich of Esbek. In the same year, the Lithuanians sailed to the Neman island near Ragnit (Neman), preying on horses and cattle.[73] In 1296–97, they stormed German-colonised Culm (Chełmno) and sacked five villages near Golub Castle, capturing or slaughtering many Christians.[74]

Throughout the Northern Crusades, the majority of Baltic tribes suffered tremendous casualties in conflicts and revolts against their conquerors. The Lithuanians, who succeeded in establishing a state, gradually assimilated those residing in its territories. The migration of Baltic peoples who resisted German colonisation and sought refuge in Lithuania also contributed to the ongoing ethnogenesis. Historical records attest that after the destruction of Sidabrė Castle in 1290, 10,000 Semigallians fled to Lithuania.[75] Old Prussians met a similar fate with many seeking sanctuary in southern Lithuania after the unsuccessful Prussian uprisings.[76] Following the demise of Curonian and Prussian tribal societies, which acted as the primary Baltic cultural centre for 3,000 years, Lithuania emerged as their successor.[77]

  1. ^ In Old East Slavic writings, certain ethnonyms, such as Литва (Литъва), were applied for both the location and its people (cf. Голядь 'Galindia', 'Galindians'; Чудь (Чюдь) 'Estonia', 'Estonians').
  2. ^ The Tale of Igor's Campaign stands as the sole historical record mentioning Deremela, prompting modern scholars to question its existence.
  3. ^ In academic literature, they are referred to as Aukštaitians (a neologism derived from Aukštaičiai) or upland Lithuanians. The translation highland Lithuanians is not applicable.
  1. ^ a b Baranauskas, Tomas (2006). Aukštaitija XIII–XV amžiuje [Aukštaitija in the 13th–15th centuries] (in Lithuanian). Kaunas: Žiemgalos leidykla. p. 33.
  2. ^ Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė, Regina (1970). Lietuviai IX–XII amžiais [Lithuanians in the 9th–12th Centuries] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mintis. p. 35. "„Die Lettowen al zu hant, die Sameyten sint genant.“ cf. LRCH 5445"
  3. ^ Zinkevičius, Zigmas (1987). Lietuvių kalbos istorija: iki pirmųjų raštų [The History of the Lithuanian Language: Before the First Written Works] (Vol. 2) (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 11.
  4. ^ Ljungar, Wilhelm (2022). Till gudz riddara han tha ouer foor. Warfare as Religious Experience in the Swedish Medieval Rhyme Chronicles 1320–1496 [PDF]. Historiska Institutionen Stockholms Universitet. pp. 54–55.
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