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SARS-CoV-2 detection and inactivation in water and wastewater: review on analytical methods, limitations and future research recommendations - PubMed

Review

SARS-CoV-2 detection and inactivation in water and wastewater: review on analytical methods, limitations and future research recommendations

Parashuram Kallem et al. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2023 Dec.

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been detected in wastewater. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a practical and cost-effective tool for the assessment and controlling of pandemics and probably for examining SARS-CoV-2 presence. Implementation of WBE during the outbreaks is not without limitations. Temperature, suspended solids, pH, and disinfectants affect the stability of viruses in wastewater. Due to these limitations, instruments and techniques have been utilized to detect SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in sewage using various concentration methods and computer-aided analyzes. RT-qPCR, ddRT-PCR, multiplex PCR, RT-LAMP, and electrochemical immunosensors have been employed to detect low levels of viral contamination. Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 is a crucial preventive measure against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). To better assess the role of wastewater as a transmission route, detection, and quantification methods need to be refined. In this paper, the latest improvements in quantification, detection, and inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater are explained. Finally, limitations and future research recommendations are thoroughly described.

Keywords: SARS-CoV-2; Wastewater; detection; epidemiology; inactivation.

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Conflict of interest statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Figures

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Graphical abstract
Figure 1.
Figure 1.

(a) SARS-CoV-2 structure. (b) SARS-CoV-2 primary and secondary transmission routes.

Figure 2.
Figure 2.

(a) Sewage pathways and summary of wastewater infectivity from COVID-19 patients’ secretions and excretions. (b) Schematic disinfection procedure of the septic tanks of Wuchang Cabin Hospital.

Figure 3.
Figure 3.

(a) Annual change in the time from the sewer to depletion of SARS-CoV-2 calculated for 8 cities (city of Tempe, Arizona, USA) affected by the COVID-19 pandemic (the figure was adapted from Hart et al. [25] with permission). (b) Virus concentration methods (the figure was adapted from Ahmed et al. [28] with permission).

Figure 4.
Figure 4.

(a) General strategy used to collect wastewater or sludge samples and detection of viral RNA using RT-PCR. (b) Digital droplet RT-PCR to detect signature SARS-CoV-2 mutations of variants (the figure was adapted from Heijnen et al. [36] with permission). (c) Concentrations of Norovirus genogroup II in combined decentralized wastewater collections were determined by qPCR and ddPCR (the figure was adapted from Jahne et al. [37] with permission).

Figure 5.
Figure 5.

(a) Key formats for developing electrochemical immunosensors. (b) Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater using Multiplex quantitative PCR. (c) QMRA risk evaluation for workers in WWTPs.

Figure 6.
Figure 6.

(a) Disinfection methods for efficient inactivation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewater. (b) The UV inactivation scheme of human infectious viruses in two large-scale wastewater treatment plants in Canada. (c) Schematic representation of an algal-based wastewater treatment system (the figure was adapted from Delanka-Pedige et al. [69] with permission).

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This work was supported by Khalifa 10.13039/100005973 University of Science, Technology and Research; Center for Membranes and Advanced Water Technology, Khalifa University: [Grant Number RC2- 2018-009].

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