Jewish mysticism
- ️Mon Sep 15 2014
This page lists the main trends and events in Jewish mysticism. Further explanation is given in History of Jewish mysticism in the context of traditional vs. academic views on the antiquity of Kabbalah.
Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially since Gershom Scholem's Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (1941), draws distinctions between different forms of mysticism which were practiced in different eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbalah, which emerged in 12th-century southwestern Europe, is the most well known, but it is not the only typological form, nor was it the first form which emerged. Among the previous forms were Merkabah mysticism (c. 100 BCE – 1000 CE), and Ashkenazi Hasidim (early 13th century) around the time of the emergence of Kabbalah.
Kabbalah means "received tradition", a term which was previously used in other Judaic contexts, but the Medieval Kabbalists adopted it as a term for their own doctrine in order to express the belief that they were not innovating, but were merely revealing the ancient hidden esoteric tradition of the Torah. This issue has been crystalized until today by alternative views on the origin of the Zohar, the main text of Kabbalah, attributed to the circle of its central protagonist Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai in the 2nd century CE, for opening up the study of Jewish Mysticism.[1] Traditional Kabbalists regard it as originating in Tannaic times, redacting the Oral Torah, so do not make a sharp distinction between Kabbalah and early Rabbinic Jewish mysticism. Academic scholars regard it as a synthesis from the Middle Ages, when it appeared between the 13th-15th centuries, but assimilating and incorporating into itself earlier forms of Jewish mysticism, possible continuations of ancient esoteric traditions,[2] as well as medieval philosophical elements.
The theosophical aspect of Kabbalah itself developed through two historical forms: "Medieval/Classic/Zoharic Kabbalah" (c.1175 – 1492 – 1570), and Lurianic Kabbalah (1569 – today) which assimilated Medieval Kabbalah into its wider system and became the basis for modern Jewish Kabbalah. After Luria, two new mystical forms popularised Kabbalah in Judaism: antinomian-heretical Sabbatean movements (1666 – 18th century), and Hasidic Judaism (1734 – today). In contemporary Judaism, the only main forms of Jewish mysticism which are practiced are esoteric Lurianic Kabbalah and its later commentaries, the variety of schools of Hasidic Judaism, and Neo-Hasidism (incorporating Neo-Kabbalah) in non-Orthodox Jewish denominations.
Two non-Jewish syncretic traditions also popularized Judaic Kabbalah through their incorporation as part of general Western esoteric culture from the Renaissance onwards: theological Christian Cabala (c. 15th – 18th century) which adapted Judaic Kabbalistic doctrine to Christian belief, and its diverging occultist offshoot Hermetic Qabalah (c. 19th century – today) which became a main element in esoteric and magical societies and teachings. As separate traditions of development outside Judaism, drawing from, syncretically adapting, and different in nature and aims from Judaic mysticism, they are not listed on this page.
For a fuller list of Kabbalistic mystics and texts, see List of Jewish Kabbalists. This timeline shows general developments:
Historical phase[3] | Dates | Influential developments and texts |
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Early Israelite traditional origins | 2nd millennium–800 BCE | Prophetic meditation mystical elements in traditional prehistory and early Bible depiction encounters with the divine:![]() Hebrew Patriarchs and Matriarchs Covenant of the pieces Jacob's Ladder Jacob wrestling with the angel Moses Early Israelite monarchic and cult prophets: |
Prophetic Judaism[4] | 800–5th century BCE | Prophetic meditation, divine encounter, heavenly host throne of God visions, mystical elements, in the literary Prophetic books of the Bible, from the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the Babylonian captivity and Return to Zion:![]() Isaiah Ezekiel Zechariah |
Apocalyptic Judaism | Beginning 5th century BCE 300–100 BCE Continuing to 1st century CE |
Mystical and apocalyptic speculation, heavenly angelology and eschatology, in Second Temple Judaism under foreign rule and oppression, after the social institution era of prophecy closed:[5]![]() Daniel 1 Enoch Biblical apocrypha-pseudepigrapha |
Mystical elements in Second Temple period sects | c. 200 BCE–c. 100 CE | Mystical, esoteric and pious elements among the diverse Jewish sects, in the religious syncretism of late Second Temple period Judea and the Diaspora:![]() Second Temple Judaism Hasideans Essenes Therapeutae Hellenistic Judaism Jewish Gnosticism Philo's Platonic philosophy influence on early Christianity Christian Jewish early Christian mysticism |
Early Rabbinic mysticism and mystical elements in classic Rabbinic literature[6] | c. 1–200 CE influence to 5th century CE | References in exoteric Talmud and Midrash to Tannaic early Rabbinic mystical circles, Maaseh Merkabah – Work of the Chariot exegesis and ascent, Maaseh Bereshit – Work of Creation exegesis. Wider continuing mystical elements in aggadah Rabbinic theology and narratives:![]() Yohanan ben Zakkai and his disciples Rabbi Akiva (Simeon bar Yochai traditional/pseudepigraphical attribution of later Kabbalist Zohar) Mystical aggadot examples: |
Merkabah-Hekhalot esoteric texts and methods | c. 2nd century–1000 | Traditional/pseudepigraphical/anonymous esoteric Merkabah mysticism Throne and Hekhalot Palaces ascent literature and methods. Text protagonists are early Tannaic Rabbis, though texts academically dated variously from Talmudic 100–500 to Gaonic 400–800 periods, and sectarian/rabbinic origins debated:![]() Earlier texts: 3 Enoch Hekhalot Rabbati (The Greater Palaces) Hekhalot Zutari (The Lesser Palaces) Merkavah Rabbah (The Great Chariot) Later texts: Shi'ur Qomah (Divine Dimensions) ![]() Mystical speculations of the Geonim |
Influence of Post-Biblical Jewish mythology and folklore on mysticism | c. early CE-early modernity | Jewish mysticism, from early Hekhalot texts, through medieval spirituality, to the folk religion storytelling of East European shtetls, absorbed motifs of Jewish mythology and folklore through Aggadic creative imagination, reception of earlier Jewish apocrypha traditions, and absorption of outside cultural influences. Later Midrash and smaller Midrashim evolve towards the ethos of Kabbalistic mysticism:![]() Lilith Theli Estries Ziz Kefitzat haderech Evil eye Dybbuk Superstition in Judaism |
"Practical Kabbalah" white magic | c. early CE–early modernity | Elite Jewish use of white magic (direct spiritual practices to influence the material realm, or to gain spiritual ascent) by mystics, colloquially called "Practical Kabbalah", drawing from syncretically collected traditions of the Talmudic period to early modernity. Distinguished from Kabbalistic theurgy (influencing solely the supernal realm of inter-Divine attributes), from Natural magic interpretations of Kabbalah, and from popular folk magic:[7]![]() Magical elements in Merkabah mysticism Hekhalot literature ascents Use of Sefer Yetzirah for magic Sefer Raziel HaMalakh Golem Amulets Joseph della Reina 1400s attempt to hasten the messiah 16th–19th century European Baal Shem |
Proto-Kabbalistic | 200–600 | Maaseh Bereshit – Creation speculation text. Describes 10 sephirot, though without their significance to later Kabbalah. Received rationalist interpretations before becoming a source text for Kabbalah:![]() Sefer Yetzirah (Book of Formation) |
Mystical elements in Medieval Jewish philosophy and culture | 11th–13th centuries | Mystical elements in the thought of Medieval rationalist and anti-rationalist Jewish philosophical theologians:![]() Solomon ibn Gabirol Jewish Neoplatonism Isaac Israeli ben Solomon Jewish Neoplatonism Abraham ibn Ezra Jewish Neoplatonism Judah Halevi anti-rationalism[8] Moses Maimonides Neoplatonised Aristotelianism[9]
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Jewish Sufi piety | 11th to 15th centuries | Jewish mystical piety, influenced by Islamic Sufism, systemising meditative experiential practices:![]() Bahya ibn Paquda 11th century – Chovot HaLevavot (Duties of the Heart) Abraham Maimonides and the "Jewish Sufis" of Old Cairo 13th–15th century |
Early Kabbalah | c. 1174–1200 | Emergence of mystical-mythic theosophical-theurgic Kabbalah among the Hachmei Provence in Southern France (Occitania).[11] The Bahir, regarded in academia as the first Kabbalistic work,[12] incorporates an earlier source text:![]() Sefer HaBahir (Book of Brightness) Abraham ben David of Posquières (The Raavad) critic of Maimonides Isaac the Blind "Iyyun" and "Unique Cherub" mystical circles of unknown provenance |
Chassidei Ashkenaz | c. 1150–1250 | Mystical-ethical piety and speculative theological theory in Ashkenaz-Germany. Shaped by Merkabah-Hekhalot texts, Practical Kabbalah magical elements, mystical reinterpretation of early medieval Jewish philosophy, Rhineland Crusader persecutions and German monastic values. Established a supreme value for devotional selflessness in Judaism:![]() Samuel of Speyer Judah of Regensburg – Sefer Hasidim (Book of the Pious) Eleazar of Worms |
Medieval Kabbalah development | c. 1200–1492 | Alternative philosophical vs. mythological interpretations of Theosophical Kabbalah: "Neoplatonic" quasi-philosophical hierarchy, and Jewish-"Gnostic" mythological interest in sexual theurgic and demonic dualism motifs. Centred in Spain's Kabbalistic golden age:
13th century Castile gnostic school:
Kabbalistic scholarship: |
Medieval Ecstatic Kabbalah | 13th–16th centuries | Medieval Meditative Kabbalah developed its own traditions.[15] Abraham Abulafia's Ecstatic-Prophetic Kabbalah, his Maimonidean alternative competitor to Theosophical Kabbalah, embodies the non-Zoharic ecstatic stream in Spanish Kabbalism. Re-imagining Judaism's prophetic techniques, it remained marginal to mainstream Kabbalah, but established a following in east Mediterranean:
Other meditative methods: |
Renaissance era Kabbalah influences | c. 1450s-1600s | Influence of the European Renaissance in crystalising philosophical and magical interpretations of Judaic Kabbalah, and fusions of philosophy with Kabbalah in late medieval-early modern Jewish philosophy:
Platonist influenced fusions of Kabbalah with Jewish philosophy: Other mystical elements in early modern Jewish philosophy: |
Post-1492 and Safed Kabbalah | 16th century | Transition from esoteric Medieval Kabbalism to Kabbalah as a national messianic doctrine, after 1492 Expulsion from Spain exile. Judaic renaissance of Palestine:![]() Joseph Taitazak Salonica Solomon Molcho Jewish Messiah claimant Meir ibn Gabbai 16th century early systemiser
Other Kabbalists of the Safed mystical and scholarly renaissance: |
Maharal's mystical theology | 16th century | Medieval Kabbalah expressed in non-Kabbalistic philosophical theology:![]() Judah Loew (Maharal) Prague |
Early Lurianic and post-medieval Kabbalism | 16th-mid–18th centuries | Esoteric Lurianism, the second of Kabbalah's two systems of theosophy after Medieval-Cordoverian, incorporating dynamic myth of exile and redemption in divinity taught by Isaac Luria 1570–1572. Other post-medieval popularising/ethical Kabbalah based itself on the more exoteric system of Moses Cordovero:
Popularising Kabbalistic Musar and homiletic literature 1550s–1750s:
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Sabbatean movements | 1665–c. 19th century | Kabbalistic messianic-mystical heresies developing antinomian new theologies from Zoharic and Lurianic Kabbalah. Theological spectrum from mild to strong:![]() Sabbateans: Sabbatai Zevi messianic claimant Islamic convert Nathan of Gaza Sabbatean prophet Moderate-crypto and radical-antinomian factions Emden-Eybeschutz controversy and Rabbinic excommunication of Sabbateans Frankism: |
Early and formative Hasidic Judaism | 1730s–1850s | Eastern European mystical revival movement, popularising and psychologising Kabbalah through Panentheism and the Tzadik mystical leader. Neutralised messianic danger expressed in Sabbateanism:![]() Pre-Hasidic origins: Baal Shem Eastern Europe Practical Kabbalists Tzadikim Nistarim mythology Early Hasidism:
Mainstream Hasidic Tzadikism: Chabad intellectual Hasidism – Russia: Breslav imaginative Hasidism – Ukraine: Peshischa-Kotzk introspective Hasidism – Poland, mystical offshoot from:
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Later traditional Lurianic Kabbalah | 18th century–today | Traditionalist esoteric interpretations and practice of Lurianic Kabbalah from 18th century until today, apart from Hasidic adaptions: Brody Kloiz and pre-Hasidic introverted Hasidim kabbalistic circles in Eastern Europe. Renewed esotericism in response to Sabbatean heresy
20th century Ashkenazi European Kabbalah (apart from Hasidic thought): |
Later Hasidic Judaism | 1850s–today | Dynastic succession and modernising society turned Hasidism away from pre-18₩10s mystical revivalism, to post-1850s consolidation and rabbinic conservatism. Mystical focus continued in some schools:![]() Yitzchak Eisik Safrin of Komarno visionary mystic Chabad-Lubavitch – intellectual Hasidism communication Zadok HaKohen late 19th century Izbica school Aharon Roth early 20th century Jerusalem piety Kalonymus Kalman Shapira response to Holocaust Menachem Mendel Schneerson (Lubavitch Rebbe) Hasidic outreach and 1990s messianism Breslav contemporary mystical revivalism |
Syntheses of Haskalah, political ideologies and secular culture with mystical elements | c. 1800s-1950s | Haskalah Jewish Enlightenment promoted critical Rationalism, strongly opposing Kabbalistic and Hasidic anti-modern mysticism. However, moderate Maskilim began scholarly investigation of Jewish mystical texts, and adapted Haskalah to Orthodox religiosity, while modern Jewish philosophy encountered universalist intellectual mystical elements in German Idealism. Late 1800s East Europe shift to Jewish political movements awakened secular Jewish cultural spirituality:
Wissenschaft des Judentums early critical-historical scholars of jewish mystical texts: German Idealist rational mystical elements in modern Jewish philosophy:
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Neo-Hasidism and Neo-Kabbalah | c. 1900–today | Modernist and Non-Orthodox Jewish denominations' adapted spiritual teaching of Kabbalistic and Hasidic theology and mysticism to modern critical thought and interpretations:![]() Early 20th century: Martin Buber from existential Neo-Hasidism to dialogical encounter Hillel Zeitlin Philosophical Neo-Hasidism Erich Neumann Jungian interpretation of Hasidic Kabbalah and Depth psychology[21] Post War and contemporary: Influence on modern and postmodern Jewish philosophy: Independent scholarship: |
Zionist and monistic mystical thought of Rav Kook | c. 1910s–today | Innovative teachings and influence of Abraham Isaac Kook, pre-State Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine and poetic mystic. Harmonistic unity of religion and secularism, halakha and aggadah, activism and quietism, developed from Kabbalistic, Hasidic, philosophic and secular thought:![]() Abraham Isaac Kook Neo-Hasidic monistic poetic mysticism beyond Kabbalah and Philosophy[26] Atchalta De'Geulah Religious Zionism Rav Kook's partial influence on Modern Orthodox Judaism[27] |
Academic study of Jewish mysticism | c. 1920s–today | Critical-historical study of Jewish mystical texts began in 19th century, but Gershom Scholem's school in the mid-20th century founded the methodological disciple in academia, returning mysticism to a central position in Jewish historiography and Jewish studies departments. Select historian examples:![]() First generation: Present generation, multi-disciplinary approaches: |