v.01.10.12
Mochi yitaw manito o kisikam
(Merry Christmas)
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| THE WESTERN PLAINS CREE |
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| Copyright 2001 |
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| by |
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| J. Fromhold |
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| GLOSSARY |
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|_______________________________________________________________________|
INTRODUCTION
This is excerpted from a Cree Dictionary currently being worked on by
the author.
Cree is an Algonkian Language. Cree legendry claims that Cree was the
Original INDIAN language in the Americas and that other Indian languages
are descended from Cree. Inuit, Athapascan and possibly some Southwestern
languages are not included in this grouping (the Inuit and Athapascan
being latecomers, and the Hopi claiming not to have been Indian at the
time of their arrival). Neither Anthropologists nor Linguists can refute
this claim. If we consider Cree as the original Paleo-Algonkian (as
Sanskrit is the closest surviving form of Indo-European), then this may
well be the case, It is generally conceeded that North and Central
American languages (excepting the above noted) are likely of Algonkian
origin. Indeed, Cree history specifically, and Northern Algonkian history
generally, shows a marked tendency to hive off into newley emergent groups
with dialectic variation. Historically, for example, the Cheyenne were
known to the Sioux as LESSER CREE, and to the Cree as OUR LANGUAGE/CREE
SPEAKERS. Kutenai, on the other hand, shows a distinct likelihood of being
an amaglamation of Proto-Cree/Blackfoot and Athabascan.
Cree is clearly a language with Indo-European roots. It adheres well to
Indo-European gramatical usages, and is certainly more consistent than
English in doing so--although this is not always readily apparent in the
colloquial versions. Indo-European speakers will find little difficulty
in understanding Cree gramatical usage. There are some intriquing
similarities to archaic Greek, though this may be simply co-incidental or
over-interpretation on my part. Considering that the Algonkians had to
have seperated from the parent stock for at least 15,000 years it would
be unlikely to find many word similarites. Especially since it shows no
truly close affinities to other American Indian languages which are,
presumably, more closely related in time.
Although apparently an Indo-European language, word and concept
association, however, can at times differ considerably from that to which
European speakers are accustomed to, though having some affinity with
central Asian Indo-Aryan.
It is certainly not a Sinitic language.
Cree is a highly dialectic language, with some major and countles minor
dialectic variations. The most distinctive dialects are the Swampy Cree,
Woods Cree and Plains Cree dialects--with occasionally the Moose Cree
being classified as a dialect seperate from the Swampy Cree. Many of the
local/district dialects, especially in the west, have English or French
influence.
The three main dialects are the H dialect, the Y dialect and the L dialect.
In practice, these three sounds are largely interchangeable in the Cree
language. As Cree families historically were highly mobile families and
readily relocated from one end of the Cree domain to the other these
'dialects' were really very mixed among each other.
The supposed L dialect is a "Woods Cree" dialect from from northern
Alberta and Saskatchewan. It is likely more a figment of someone's
imagination. Most of those people lumped into this dialectic group trace
their ancestry to the Alberta-Saskatchewan plains within the past 4
generations.
The H dialect is a "Swampy Cree" and "Woods Cree" dialect from the east.
The Y dialect is the "Plains Cree" dialect. I defy anyone to precisely
define where these differentiate.
The Cree Language has never been regularized. It is characterized by the
use of numerous contractions. Hence speakers speak the language with any
number of colloquial variations, usually dependant on the community from
which they come. Spoken Cree today--and the written Cree that is based on
it--is today a combination of colloquialisms, slang and contractions. This
means that spoken Cree today varies considerably not only from communty to
community but also from person to person. This colloquialism and slang
tends to be reflected in most word lists, glossaries and 'dictionaries'
existing to date.
It would not be too much to say that each Cree community has it's own
dialectic signature--and that the dialect varies by speaker.
In addition, there are related languages that overlap with the Cree,
including the Montagnais, various Chippewa dialects (especially the
Soto dialects, which are called 'Cree' by their users), Cheyenne and
Nehiyapwat, a mixed Cree-Nakoda language.
In fact, all these slang and colloquial dialects are based on what is/was
known as High Cree, sometimes referred to as Old Cree.
High Cree was a very precise language (at one time the Cree called
themselves "The Precise Speakers") that is characterzied by the lack of
contractions and slurring of words. Old Cree is characterized by the clear
pronunciation of the complete root words, without dropping vowels and
slurring of words. It is the root language on which Cree and likely the
Chippewa/Ojibway group, are based.
The last known user of High Cree for normal conversation among the West
People was Maurice Quinn of Saddle Lake (b. 1907). Though it survives in
part in some ceremonies, it is not unlikely that no-one in the last two--
possibly three--generations is fluent in Old Cree as a conversational language.
The glossary given here is based on the High Cree--that is, the complete
--form of the Cree language and words.
It has sometimes been said that Cree is a tonal language. This is not
true. Tone, accents and inflections modify words and meanings in much
the same way way as in other Indo-Euopean languages. They do not
drastically alter the meaning or nature of the word. More significant-
ly, the accents and inflections tend to vary by region, group, reserve,
community and individual, often due to the differing cultural histories
of these particular groups. As such they are dialectic or local
colloquial variations.
Accenting of syllables also tends to vary by local slang usage and has
little apparent consistency. To reduce potential confusion, accents have
not been included here. While some may complain, it again has the benefit
of simplifying the gramar and make it understandable in all dialectic
communities.
When words begin with a vowel or silent H, the terminal vowel of the
preceeding word is often slurred into the vowel of the following word to
the point where the listener may not notice
It has been said that the Cree spoken today is "Women's Cree", as taught
by Cree wives of traders to their offspring. This is incorrect and is a
misinterpretation of the nature of High Cree versus colloquialisms.
Historically there have been a number of word lists and 'dictionaries'
compiled or passed down. Travelers, traders and government agents have
at various times attempted to transcribe Cree into Englisn. Sadly, these
word lists tend to vary considerably in the way they were recorded due
to various reasons such as local dialectical differences, informants
who's mother tongue was not Cree, a poor grasp (in many cases no know-
lege of the language whatsoever), lack of phonetic standardization and
lack of knowlege of linguistics. As noted, these lists tend to be of
local colloquial and slang derivation.
This resulted in as many as 30 different versions of the same name being
recorded--often lacking any descernible consistency. This tended to
create gramatical monstrosities which, more often than not, are
indecipherable today.
Even today no standard form of written Cree or spelling conventions
exist. Hence the use here of the Cree Syllabic format (transcribed into
Roman phonemes) that has been in use since its inception by Reverend
James Evans at Norway House in the 1830's. It is a universal standard
and has been in use by all Church publications since its inception.
This standardises and simplifies the written form, perhaps at the cost
of some over-simplification. Some will complain that it does not show
aspirants, long vowels or soft consenants. Since these tend to be
regional or local variants mostly applicable to the colloquial or slang
usages, this is not a great concern when considering the Cree language
as a whole.
Though not a gender-specific language, Cree is a masculine language,
meaning that nouns are in unmodified form masculin. Instead of translating
PIMOTEW as "to walk" it translates as "he walks". Unless a word applies to
a specific female trait it is always translated in the masculin. For
example, in Cree God CAN NOT be female. MANITO by definition is implicitly
masculin. A female spirit/god MUST be so stated, as MANITO ISKWEW.
While not a gender-based language, Cree IS a animate/inanimate based
language. Basically, anything that grows or grew while alive, is
considered animate and anything that does not grow is inanimate. Words
are conjugated on whether they refer to an animate or an inanimate
subject. Eg. "He moves" versus "It moves". All animate/growing/living
things are "He".
There is no distinction between the "He" of a person, animal or plant.
This is the basis on which is built the concept that all living
creatures are brothers. In Cree a tree is addressed linguistically in
the same way as a person.
The distinction between animate and inanimate is expressed linguistically
by different suffix forms. For all practical purposes, the colloquial and
slang usages are so broad that the novice speaker will not notice a
distinction. The distinction is more in the cognition than in the usage.
Cree verbs generally follow a regular conjugation, though an added
complication is the addition of near and far present and future tense.
A major difference between Cree (and hence other Indian languages) is
that while in Indo-European gramars the noun/pronoun is the subject
modified by verbs and articles, in Cree the action/verb is the subject,
modified by the noun/pronoun. This occasionally causes some problems
in conceptualization by the users of European thinking.
As early as the 1660's Fr. Le Jeune noted in frustration that
"The language of the Montagnais he considered especially
exasperating, because it had so many different ways of saying
the same thing. Where one word or expression sufficed for the
French, the oppulent Indians had a dozen.....When you know the
parts of the French or Spanish and how to combine them you know
the languages. Not so with us. Stock your memory with all the
words which stand for objects, learn the knot or syntax that
joins them, and you are still an ignoramus. For besides the
names of individual things, there are an infinite number of
words that signify several things together. And these compound
relations have no relation, or alliance, or affinity in sound
with the simple terms which signify the things apart. It is
a tiresome abundance."
Because Cree is an aglutinative language based on a few core morphemes,
it is characerized by prefixes, infixes and suffixes. Prefixes are
usually easily identifiable in that they constitute the main part of
the root word. Infixes are often characterized by simple morphemes
taken from the root word--especially in the colloquial. Suffixes, when
not consisting of a whole word or root word, are often morphemes. These
are distinguished on whether it is animate or inanimate. In the
colloquial these are often distinguished by modifications based on the
preceding vowls or consonants and take the form of dropped or slurred
connectives.
This is further complicated by the fact that, like all languages, the
coloquial Cree differs from the ideal Cree in that it contains a broad
range of pronunciation variation, slang, and a high degree or slurring
and shortening of words. While this complicates the speaking of the
language, it has the advantage for the new speaker that the animate/
inanimate endings are often for all practical purposes indistinguishable.
The Cree language is a syllabic language. In regular word construc-
tion, words are combinations of morphemes consisting of a consonant
followed by a vowel, eg. KI-CHI MA-NI-TO. Unlike in Siouan, these pairs
does not usually have a meaning on their own.
On occasion, words are ended by a consonant, generally as part of a
suffix, such as SI-PI-SIS. Occasional words have a seperate consonant
infix, such ask KA-K-WA; however, in the spoken language, this is mostly
because of the slurring or contraction of words, rather than a function
of the gramatical structure.
CREE SYLLABIC ALPHABET
a o e i
wa wo we wi w
pa po pe pi p
ta to te ti t
ka ko ke ki k
cha cho che chi ch
ma mo me mi m
na no ne ni n
sa so se si s
ya yo ye yi
The Y and H sounds are written with the same
syllabic symbol. Broadly speaking, these
sounds are interchangeable for the different
dialects. The sounds are usually soft
aspirants, to the point where listeners
frequently miss the sound (as in IKAPAW,
which is actually HI KA-PAW).
Due to the differences in dialect between the many Cree groups and
the extensive use of loan words, there is little standardization in
the Cree language. Some attempt has been made here to use some
standardized spelling, based on the Plains Cree phonetic system as
developed by Mathilda Brerretton at Saddle Lake.
Note that this is not a guide to spoken Cree, which varies
considerably, as explained above. Rather, it is a guide to gramati-
cal structure of Cree words, and is therefore more representative of
the High Cree and indicative of the origin of contemporary words. In
writing the words there are often double consonants used, such as
in w-w, where they form connectives; in the spoken convention, these
are usually slurred into one letter.
There is a tendency in the Cree community for each community to try
to write Cree in it's own exclusive dialect - that is, to write Cree
phonetically based on local dialects and slang. This is self-defeating,
in that it represents only a limited spoken version of Cree. If we
were to write English in the same way it would be virtually impossible
to communicate in written English even between western Canadians and
Newfoundlanders - let alone with Liverpudlian, Scotts, Jamaican and
Punjabi English. The purpose of a written language is to present the
written form in a format understandable to the widest audience, not
to promote local dialects and slangs.
Words given here are not broken down into syllables, as in English
dictionaries. Instead, they are broken down to show the root word
structure to demonstrate concept groups.
Undoubtedly some will disagree with some of the information as it is
presented. Good. Undoubtedly there are errors and numerous details
that need to be further explored. I challenge a new generation to
take the initiative and take this work one step further. It has taken
350 years to get this far since Henry Kelsey's first Cree glossary.
This is only the fourth significant work since then (after Mackenzie,
Lacombe and Anderson). There is much room for study and improvement.
SPELLING CONVENTIONS
a = ah
i = ee
e = ay
ch = ch, tc, ts, tch, tz
due to dialectic variation the 'ch' and 's' sounds
are often interchangeable.
k = k, c (hard)
o = o, oo
s = c (soft)
b is always written as 'p', the dominant sound
p is pronounced 'b' when followed by a short 'a'
h is usually unspoken or aspirated, and varies
considerably by dialect (eg. H-dialect) and
speaker. Generally not included in this text
to minimize confusion, except where it is a
definate aspirant or required as a structural
part of the word.
y like the 'h', is often aspirated. Is sometimes
found as a connecting slur between vowels, but
this is largely a speech colloquialism and is
not included here in such cases.
w-w a spelling convention due to basic word
structure, usually slurred or contracted into
a single sound in speaking
Long sounds are not writen in the Cree Syllabics, though they exist in
the spoken language. However, these tend to be dialectic in nature and
vary from place to place and speaker to speaker. In syllabics it is
customary to write them as short sounds, hence the OO sound is written
as O, and others accordingly. A word pronounced as MOOSTOOS is written
as MOSTOS, the Cree OO actually being an intermediate sound between the
O and the OO as in MOOSE.
achak see O Chak
aha payew "they are real people"
amisk "beaver"
Amisk Sipi Beaver River
Amisk Wachi Beaver Hills
amisk wachi wi iniwak "Beaver Hill People"
Amisk Wachi Sakahikan Beaverhills Lake
apischis Small/Little
asini "Rock/Stone"
asini pwat Assiniboine Indian ("Stone Sioux/Enemy")
asini pwat-sak Assiniboine Indians (plural)
Stone Sioux/Enemies; Nakoda Indian;
Also called Assiniboine, Stone and
Stoney Indians, supposedly for their
use of the 'stone boiling' method of
cooking, though this is not correct.
David Thompson noted that it was
because they resided in mountainous
areas. Most Nakoda bands and
subdivisions include the name
"Stone People" as part of their name.
The name 'Stoney' (less commonly
'Stony' is commonly used for the
Nakoda found in western Alberta.
Erasmus stated in 1859 that
"The Stony Indians were so called
because of their preference for the
mountainous country where they
they lived and did most of their
hunting." (Erasmus 1976:74)
However, by that time the name had
asini wachi Rocky Mountains, "Rock/Stone Mountain"
asini wachi nehiyawak "Mountain Cree"; the Cree bands of
the Asini Wachi Ininiwak
asini wachi wi iniwak "Rock/Stone Mountain People"; those
bands of the Nehiyaw-Pwat alliance
who ranged along the mountains
asis (-sis, -is) suffix denoting small; from the High
Cree O sis
aski- a defineable plot of earth/ground/
territory
Aski-s Ini-w the first human, "Earth Man"
Askiwin see Askis Iniw
Assiniboine see Asini Pwat
Athabasca see Ota Paskwa
atin Wind
awas asis (awas-sis) "child"
awasis see awas asis
ayachiniwak see ayachi-w ini-w
ayachi-w ini-w "strange people, Blackfoot"
Ayachi-w Ini-w Sakahikan Lesser Slave Lake, "strange people lake"
ayachi-w ini-w ininiwak "strangers/Blackfoot Lake People"
Ayachi-w Ini-wak Siksika Blackfoot
ayichi-w pichew "they move away elsewhere"
ayik "frog"
Ayik Sakahikan "Frog Lake"
Ayik Sakahikan Ininiwak "Frog Lake People"
hi prefix denoting an action
hi ka-paw "he stands"
-hik suffix denoting a place where
an event or action has taken place
ikapaw see hi ka-paw
ini-w "Person"
ini-wak/inini-wak/wi ini-wak "People"
see also Wi Iniwak
innu see ini-w
-isk see Iskwe
iskwe asis "girl/young woman"
iskwe-w "woman"
ka- he/it (is)
ka kichi-wew he calls
Ka Misa Wikiyap "It Is A Big Lodge"; The Sun Dance
Lodge
ka-mik "bay/lake/water"
kakakew crow/raven
kaki "always"
kaki chiwew "always talking/bragging"
kaki chiwew ininiwak "Bragging People" a division of the
Kitopwe Sipi Ininiwak
kamik "house"
kana-ta "clean/tidy place"
kaskawan "fog, foggy"
kaskawin "foggy place, place of fog"
kayas "long ago/in the past", "long time no
see, it's been a long time"
kayas nehiya-w "long ago Cree/Indian"
ki prefix denoting "you/your"
ki-wew North
ki-we atin North Wind
ki-ya "you"
ki kino "our home"
kichi/kisi "big/great, good"
kichi mani-to "Great Spirit"
kichi-na see kichi nape
kichi nape "big man, good man"
kichi-nas "good people"
kinistenog "they who were first"
The word is indecipherable and does
not exist in either Cree or Chippewa.
Possibly from KA NISTAW INEW - "They
are Brother-In-Law People" (i.e.,
'People With Who We Intermarry')
kiski-yew "bobtail/cut off/cut tail"
kisi-kaw "day"
kito-pwe "He makes a Musical Sound"
Kito-pwe Sipi Qu'Appelle River
Kito-pwe Sipi Wi Iniwak Qu'Appelle River People
ko-kom "Grandmother" (term of respect to any
elder female)
kutuna-hew Kutenai Indians
machi "bad"
machi manito "bad spirit"
machi-na see machi nape-w
machi nape-w "bad man/person"
machi-nas "bad people"
mamik "downstream"
mamik wi iniwak "downstream people", those people
livine east of the Saskatchewan
river forks/South Saskatchewan
River
manito "spirit"
manito-kan "pretend spirit" - a spirit effigy
traditionally erected in a secluded
spot to serve as an altar for
offerings and prayers.
maski "bad"
maski-kan Swampy; "He is of the swampy place"
maski-ki "swamp"
maski-ki wi iniwak Swampy Cree, "swampy people"
masko-wa "bear, strong"
masko-tew "prairie"
masko-tew ininiwak Prairie Indians, Prairie Nehiyaw-Pwat,
"prairie people"; he proper Cree
term for the Plains Cree and all
bands of the Nehiyapwat Alliance who
roamed the prairies and plains
masko-tew nehiyaw-wak "Prairie Cree"; The Prairie Cree
bands of the Maskotew Wininiwak
maskwa see masko-wa
Maskwa Wachi-is Bear Hills
maskwa wachi-is ininiwak "bear hills people; Hobbema Reservation
michi/misa/misi "big/large"
michi nipi wi iniwak Churchill River Cree, "big water people"
Michi Nipi Sipi Churchill River, "big water stream"
mikisiw eagle
mista-pew see mistahi nape-w
mistahi "big/great"
mistahi asini "big stone"
mistahi maskwa "big bear"
mistahi nape-w "big man/giant"
mistassini see mistahi asini
mo-sam "Grandfather" (term of respect for
any elder male)
mostos "bull", buffalo, cattle
Mostos Sakahikan Buffalo Lake
mostos sakahikan wi iniwak "buffalo lake people"; those bands of
the Nehiyapwat Alliance who hunter
around Buffalo Lake
moswa "moose"
naka wi iniwak "mixed people"; Chippewa/Soto
na-mik "downstream"
na-mik wi iniwak "downstream people"; those bands
living east of the South Saskatchewan
River
nape-w "man"
nape asis "young man"
nehiya-w "Cree" (singular), "Indian"
nehiya-w pwat Cree-Assiniboine
Nehiya-w Pwat Confederacy The inter-related allied bands and
tribes of the Chippewa/Soto, Cree,
Nakoda and affiliated neighboring
bands (Chippewyan, Crow, Shuswap,
Tza Tinne), and the affiliated tribes
of the Colville, Flathead, Kutenai
and Shuswap.
nehiya-wak Cree (plural), "all of us", "everybody"
nehiya-wan "speaking Cree"
nehiyapwat see nehiya-w pwat
ni prefix denoting "me/mine"
ni-ya "I"
ni is-chas "my friend"
ni is-taw "my brother-in-law/potential brother-
in-law"
ni tanis "my daughter"
nipi "water"
nista first
o prefix denoting primacy or a
proper name
o chak star, spirit
o kichi-taw Warrior Society, "main big thing"
okima-w "Influential Person"; traditional
chief; nowdays also used as Chief
from High Cree O Kichi-maw
okima-kan "Pretend Chief/Government Chief/
Reservation Chief"
opa-hew "they fly away"
ota "over there"
ota paskwa Athabasca; "there are plains/
grasslands over there"
ota paskwa ininiwak Athabasca River Indians, "plains/
grasslands over there people"
pakisimo-tak "to the west, western, westerly"
paskwa "plains"
paskwa wi iniwak "plains people"
paskwa nehiya-w-pwat Plains Cree/Nakoda & affiliated peoples
paskwa nehiya-wak Plains Cree; The Cree bands of the
Paskwa Wininiwak
paskwa mostos "plains bull", "buffalo"
pesew "cougar, mountain lion"
pi prefix denoting action
Pi Matisew Monew Chikan "Maker of New Life"; Rainbow; used
ONLY!! when speaking in the conext
of the compact between Kichi Manito
and man after the Great Flood.
pi-mot-tew "he walks", "leg"
pi-to-new "arm"
Pi-ye-sis bird
Pi-ye-si-wak Chak Thunderbird
pwat Sioux, "enemy"; also used as a
contraction for Asini Pwat (Nakoda)
Pwat-sak Nakoda/Sioux plural
-sak, -wak a suffix indicating plural
saka "bushland/woodland"
saka wi iniwak "woods people"; those bands of the
Nehiyaw-Pwat Confederation who
resided primarily in the woodlands.
saka nehiyawak "woods Cree"
saka pwat-sak "woods Nakoda"
sakahikan "lake"
saki ta-waw "meeting/getting together/junction"
Saki Ta-waw Isle A La Crosse
saki ta-waw ininiwak Isle A La Crosse People
sakpwatsak see saka pwat-sak
sasi-w Sarcee/Tsuu T'Ina
sasi-wak Sarcee/Tsuu T'Ina Indians
Saskowa Atin Chinook Wind
sawan South
Sawan Atin South Wind
sipi "river/stream"
sipi asis "creek/streamlet, little river"
sipi wi iniwak Battle River Indians, "river/stream
people"; those bands trading at Fort
Pitt, based out of the Jackfish Lake-
Onion Lake area
sipisis see sipi asis
sisip "duck"
sisip pimo-tew "Duck Walking", "Waddles", "Walks
Like A Duck"
siwap "sweet"
siwap wi iniwak Shuswap Indians
wachak see o chak
wachi "hill/mountain"
wachi-is "small hill/mountain"
-wak, -sak a suffix denoting plural
wapos "rabbit"
wapos wi iniwak "rabbit people"; Nehiyaw-Pwat of the
Swan River-Assiniboine River
area
waska-hi-kan "house"
waska-hi-kan ininiwak Fort Carlton Indians, "house people"
Wesakachak name of the Trickster spirit
wi "we/all of us/everyone"
wiki-wam "lodge"
Wi Iniwak "People" (implying a group of mixed
origins)
wi taski-win "The place where all of us/everyone
speak to each other"; Place of making
peace.
Wisakachak (WI SAKA O CHAK) The Trickster of legend.
witiko !DO NOT SAY THIS WORD! An Ice-Cannibal;
simiar to the nordic Frost Giants.
monster with a heart of ice. By unknown
means he can turn others into WITIKO.
One of the few bad monsters in Cree
mythology. No true description
available; larger than humans and
perhaps similar to the Frost Giants
of Norse mythology. Not totally bad;
WITIKO help the Thunderbirds in their
battles against giant snakes, the
underwater panthers and Elk Medicine,
who are all held to be evil. Saying
the name is believed to cause the
onset of cold, a blizzard or strom.
Seems to work.
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