academia.edu

'Here comes the sun....' solar symbolism in Early Bronze Age Ireland

  • ️https://independent.academia.edu/MaryCahill

2015, Archaeology Ireland 29(1), 26-33,

Sign up for access to the world's latest research

checkGet notified about relevant papers

checkSave papers to use in your research

checkJoin the discussion with peers

checkTrack your impact

Abstract

This short article is an attempt to articulate some new ideas about the real nature and function of the gold objects that are the most commonly encountered in the earliest goldwork from Ireland and Britain—discs and lunulae.

Figures (15)

The rediscovery of a gold lunula and a pair of gold discs amongst the contents of a safe stolen from a pharmacy in Strokestown, Co. Roscommon, in 2009 received widespread publicity at the time. The story was briefly described in a news piece for Archaeology Ireland and the original find-place in 1945 was revealed as Coggalbeg, Co. Roscommon, a few miles from Strokestown. It was noted that the discovery of a lunula and gold discs together was unusual and might have implications for the dating of both types of objects. Precise dating of Irish Bronze Age goldwork is difficult in any case, as there are so few datable associations or contexts to work with. Although we were able to locate the turf bank at Coggalbeg where the objects were found, there was no archaeological The discovery did, however, offer an opportunity to look at gold discs and to think about how they may have functioned and how they might relate to lunulae. The discs have long been called ‘sun-discs’ because they are made of gold and are obviously circular in form. Nevertheless, the discs take many different forms when their decorative and other features are considered: some are quite plain, others highly decorated; some are perforated at the centre while others are not; some are completely flat, while others are or were domed. Some
The rediscovery of a gold lunula and a pair of gold discs amongst the contents of a safe stolen from a pharmacy in Strokestown, Co. Roscommon, in 2009 received widespread publicity at the time. The story was briefly described in a news piece for Archaeology Ireland and the original find-place in 1945 was revealed as Coggalbeg, Co. Roscommon, a few miles from Strokestown. It was noted that the discovery of a lunula and gold discs together was unusual and might have implications for the dating of both types of objects. Precise dating of Irish Bronze Age goldwork is difficult in any case, as there are so few datable associations or contexts to work with. Although we were able to locate the turf bank at Coggalbeg where the objects were found, there was no archaeological The discovery did, however, offer an opportunity to look at gold discs and to think about how they may have functioned and how they might relate to lunulae. The discs have long been called ‘sun-discs’ because they are made of gold and are obviously circular in form. Nevertheless, the discs take many different forms when their decorative and other features are considered: some are quite plain, others highly decorated; some are perforated at the centre while others are not; some are completely flat, while others are or were domed. Some
Below: PI. 3—Elaborate discs with crosses, zigzags, dotting, concentric rings, rays and whirligig in various combinations. Clockwise from top left: Tedavnet, Co. Monaghan (one of a pair); Ireland W266 (one of a pair); button cover, the Knowes of Trotty, Orkney, Scotland (one of four); button cover, Sparrograda (Ballydehob), Co. Cork. Not to scale (©NMI and National Museum of Scotland).
Below: PI. 3—Elaborate discs with crosses, zigzags, dotting, concentric rings, rays and whirligig in various combinations. Clockwise from top left: Tedavnet, Co. Monaghan (one of a pair); Ireland W266 (one of a pair); button cover, the Knowes of Trotty, Orkney, Scotland (one of four); button cover, Sparrograda (Ballydehob), Co. Cork. Not to scale (©NMI and National Museum of Scotland).
sun in ordinary everyday conditions varies according to the time of day. It is almost impossible to look at a very bright midday sun, as the eyes react against it. It is possible, however, to look at the rising or setting sun for a short period of time without strain or damage. For example, watching the sun going down over water produces a number of visual and colour effects that have been observed for millennia. The way we see the sun can vary, depending on atmospheric conditions and the presence or absence of clouds, rain or mist. Sunlight filtered through trees also produces similar effects.
sun in ordinary everyday conditions varies according to the time of day. It is almost impossible to look at a very bright midday sun, as the eyes react against it. It is possible, however, to look at the rising or setting sun for a short period of time without strain or damage. For example, watching the sun going down over water produces a number of visual and colour effects that have been observed for millennia. The way we see the sun can vary, depending on atmospheric conditions and the presence or absence of clouds, rain or mist. Sunlight filtered through trees also produces similar effects.
In the absence of any direct or contextual archaeological evidence for the identification of gold discs as sun symbols, this interpretation provides some real astronomical associations that strengthen the case. This does not of itself tell us how these objects functioned, or how they were regarded in early Bronze Age society in Ireland or in the wider European milieu. What is clear is that the use of sun symbols is much more widespread and is not confined to objects made of gold. The same range of solar motifs can be seen on the bases of many ceramic Bowls (i.e. Food Vessel Bowls) of the early Bronze Age. The easiest way to gain an overview of just how many pots are decorated in this way is to leaf through O Riorddin and Waddell’s invaluable corpus of Irish Bronze Age Bowls and Vases (1993). In this corpus 388 Bowls are illustrated, of which c. 350
In the absence of any direct or contextual archaeological evidence for the identification of gold discs as sun symbols, this interpretation provides some real astronomical associations that strengthen the case. This does not of itself tell us how these objects functioned, or how they were regarded in early Bronze Age society in Ireland or in the wider European milieu. What is clear is that the use of sun symbols is much more widespread and is not confined to objects made of gold. The same range of solar motifs can be seen on the bases of many ceramic Bowls (i.e. Food Vessel Bowls) of the early Bronze Age. The easiest way to gain an overview of just how many pots are decorated in this way is to leaf through O Riorddin and Waddell’s invaluable corpus of Irish Bronze Age Bowls and Vases (1993). In this corpus 388 Bowls are illustrated, of which c. 350
may have influenced the way solar imagery is represented, such as sun pillars, sun dogs, crepuscular rays, halos and circumzenithal arcs (Pl. 4). We must presume that in prehistoric times, while there was close observation and knowledge of the sun’s daily and seasonal movements, the sun itself was viewed directly for very short periods, as there were no protective filters available. It should therefore be safe to assume that, if gold discs are to be understood as sun symbols, the motifs used, singly or in combination, should portray the sun as it was seen through normal everyday observations. In this way the use of a cross can be understood as representing a sun where the rays appear to extend from the centre to form four arms. This is frequently seen at sunrise and sunset. On some discs the arms of the cross are laddered, e.g. the discs from Rappa Castle, Co. Mayo, or Kilmuckridge, Co. Wexford, perhaps mimicking the effect of the reflection of the setting sun on water (Pls 2 and 4). On other occasions the sun may appear to have jagged, broken edges, which might be represented by the zigzag motifs that are also a common feature of the decoration of sun-discs. The use of angled rays in a circle, such as those seen on one of the discs from the Knowes of Trotty, Scotland, may represent the idea of the sun rolling or ‘wheeling’ across the sky. Undecorated discs may be manifestations of the sun as a golden disc high in the sky, while concentric rings and dots may suggest an interpretation of the sun’s corona, which can be seen with the naked eye during an event such as an annular solar eclipse where the moon blocks the centre of the sun, leaving a bright ring or annulus visible. A ring around the sun can also be seen in everyday situations. There are many other observable manifestations of the sun that
may have influenced the way solar imagery is represented, such as sun pillars, sun dogs, crepuscular rays, halos and circumzenithal arcs (Pl. 4). We must presume that in prehistoric times, while there was close observation and knowledge of the sun’s daily and seasonal movements, the sun itself was viewed directly for very short periods, as there were no protective filters available. It should therefore be safe to assume that, if gold discs are to be understood as sun symbols, the motifs used, singly or in combination, should portray the sun as it was seen through normal everyday observations. In this way the use of a cross can be understood as representing a sun where the rays appear to extend from the centre to form four arms. This is frequently seen at sunrise and sunset. On some discs the arms of the cross are laddered, e.g. the discs from Rappa Castle, Co. Mayo, or Kilmuckridge, Co. Wexford, perhaps mimicking the effect of the reflection of the setting sun on water (Pls 2 and 4). On other occasions the sun may appear to have jagged, broken edges, which might be represented by the zigzag motifs that are also a common feature of the decoration of sun-discs. The use of angled rays in a circle, such as those seen on one of the discs from the Knowes of Trotty, Scotland, may represent the idea of the sun rolling or ‘wheeling’ across the sky. Undecorated discs may be manifestations of the sun as a golden disc high in the sky, while concentric rings and dots may suggest an interpretation of the sun’s corona, which can be seen with the naked eye during an event such as an annular solar eclipse where the moon blocks the centre of the sun, leaving a bright ring or annulus visible. A ring around the sun can also be seen in everyday situations. There are many other observable manifestations of the sun that
bordering the base. This use of space when viewed from above expands the area available in which to represent fully the solar image. It is also notable, as far as the decoration of vessel bases is concerned, that this is a phenomenon chiefly associated with Bowls, as very few Vases show evidence of basal decoration. Because of their rounded body forms, unlike the more angular Vases, Bowls lend themselves more readily to the
bordering the base. This use of space when viewed from above expands the area available in which to represent fully the solar image. It is also notable, as far as the decoration of vessel bases is concerned, that this is a phenomenon chiefly associated with Bowls, as very few Vases show evidence of basal decoration. Because of their rounded body forms, unlike the more angular Vases, Bowls lend themselves more readily to the
Pairs of gold discs are also known from Oviedo in the north of Spain (Pl. 8) and from Cabeceiras de Basto (Pl. 9) in northern Portugal, where a lunula was also found. A gold diadem from Caravaca de la Cruz (Murcia) bears a gold disc with concentric
Pairs of gold discs are also known from Oviedo in the north of Spain (Pl. 8) and from Cabeceiras de Basto (Pl. 9) in northern Portugal, where a lunula was also found. A gold diadem from Caravaca de la Cruz (Murcia) bears a gold disc with concentric
Solar imagery is also a very important part of the repertoire of motifs used in Scandinavian rock art. The solar disc is represented in a variety of ways, including circles with crosses, wheeled circles and blank discs. One or more sun discs may be part of the same picture, and where two occur it seems likely that they represent the day and the night sun (Pl. 13). More than two sun symbols may depict the movement of the sun on its daily journey from day to night and from east to west. Numerous Scandinavian scholars have contributed to our understanding of these images. In the earliest depictions, c. 1700 BC, the sun is Beakers in the Csepel (Hungary) group show some remarkable similarities to Iberian vessels, especially in the way the bases are decorated. These vessels are also interpreted as representing sun symbols. In a very interesting paper, Enrédi and Pasztor (2006) have also considered these vessels from an inverted vertical position and suggest that the decorative motifs can be read in a new way from this perspective. Reading the decoration on Irish Bowls from the base rather than the side or the top completely changes one’s perspective to such a degree that these pots may be considered solar bowls, as the imagery is so powerful. In relation to Danish wooden drinking cups with sun-star motifs outlined in tin nails on their bases, such as those from Guldhgj, Kristian Kristiansen (2011, 153) has remarked that, when the cups are raised to the mouth, the sun would be seen to rise metaphorically as the image became visible. The same may well be true of the Irish Bowls. It should also be noted that the bases of many Miniature Vessels (accessory cups) can be similarly interpreted. Kavanagh (1977) illustrates several examples, such as those from Cushendall, Co. Antrim, Dunleckney (Bagnelstown), Co. Carlow, Moyhora, Co. Kilkenny (Pl. 10), and Broughderg, Co. Tyrone.
Solar imagery is also a very important part of the repertoire of motifs used in Scandinavian rock art. The solar disc is represented in a variety of ways, including circles with crosses, wheeled circles and blank discs. One or more sun discs may be part of the same picture, and where two occur it seems likely that they represent the day and the night sun (Pl. 13). More than two sun symbols may depict the movement of the sun on its daily journey from day to night and from east to west. Numerous Scandinavian scholars have contributed to our understanding of these images. In the earliest depictions, c. 1700 BC, the sun is Beakers in the Csepel (Hungary) group show some remarkable similarities to Iberian vessels, especially in the way the bases are decorated. These vessels are also interpreted as representing sun symbols. In a very interesting paper, Enrédi and Pasztor (2006) have also considered these vessels from an inverted vertical position and suggest that the decorative motifs can be read in a new way from this perspective. Reading the decoration on Irish Bowls from the base rather than the side or the top completely changes one’s perspective to such a degree that these pots may be considered solar bowls, as the imagery is so powerful. In relation to Danish wooden drinking cups with sun-star motifs outlined in tin nails on their bases, such as those from Guldhgj, Kristian Kristiansen (2011, 153) has remarked that, when the cups are raised to the mouth, the sun would be seen to rise metaphorically as the image became visible. The same may well be true of the Irish Bowls. It should also be noted that the bases of many Miniature Vessels (accessory cups) can be similarly interpreted. Kavanagh (1977) illustrates several examples, such as those from Cushendall, Co. Antrim, Dunleckney (Bagnelstown), Co. Carlow, Moyhora, Co. Kilkenny (Pl. 10), and Broughderg, Co. Tyrone.
carried on a boat so that it can complete its diurnal and nocturnal circuit of the earth and the underworld. The story becomes more complicated with the introduction of other elements throughout the Scandinavian Bronze Age and into the Iron Age. These include horses, fish, the Divine Twins who protect the sun, and individuals called ‘adorants’, who appear to worship the sun and carry aloft objects incorporating solar discs. Flemming Kaul (1998) has shown how the sun’s daily journey is also depicted on Danish Bronze Age razors. A horse pulls the Trundholm disc on a carriage and can be interpreted as a sculptural representation of the sun’s journey, with the golden face representing daytime and the bronze face representing night-time. The surface of the bronze disc found with a hoard of weapons at Nebra in Germany and dated to c. 1600 BC bears a complex imagery representing the sun, moon, stars, horizons and a solar boat (Pl. 11a). Gold sheet is used to highlight the various astronomical features on the disc. Kristiansen (2012) has also written about the background of Scandinavian solar myths, tracing their origin back to Indo-European sources which spread from the east to the west in the early third millennium. If these myths reached northern Europe at the beginning of the Scandinavian Bronze Age c. 1700 BC, can we also suggest that a version of the story of the sun came to Ireland around the time when metal-working was introduced here? Gold discs, jet buttons and
carried on a boat so that it can complete its diurnal and nocturnal circuit of the earth and the underworld. The story becomes more complicated with the introduction of other elements throughout the Scandinavian Bronze Age and into the Iron Age. These include horses, fish, the Divine Twins who protect the sun, and individuals called ‘adorants’, who appear to worship the sun and carry aloft objects incorporating solar discs. Flemming Kaul (1998) has shown how the sun’s daily journey is also depicted on Danish Bronze Age razors. A horse pulls the Trundholm disc on a carriage and can be interpreted as a sculptural representation of the sun’s journey, with the golden face representing daytime and the bronze face representing night-time. The surface of the bronze disc found with a hoard of weapons at Nebra in Germany and dated to c. 1600 BC bears a complex imagery representing the sun, moon, stars, horizons and a solar boat (Pl. 11a). Gold sheet is used to highlight the various astronomical features on the disc. Kristiansen (2012) has also written about the background of Scandinavian solar myths, tracing their origin back to Indo-European sources which spread from the east to the west in the early third millennium. If these myths reached northern Europe at the beginning of the Scandinavian Bronze Age c. 1700 BC, can we also suggest that a version of the story of the sun came to Ireland around the time when metal-working was introduced here? Gold discs, jet buttons and
Scandinavian solar boats the prow and stern are often very underdeveloped, and only the later examples show elaborate treatment of these features, with bird-head or horse-head terminals. Very often rock art boats are depicted with numerous short strokes, straight or angled, believed to represent oars or oarsmen. Groups of short strokes are also one of the most common motifs on both the border and panel ornament on Irish Iunulae (Pls 11b and 12). The gold boat on the Nebra disc is outlined with short strokes incised on the bronze surface. The boat itself has two concentric lines running along its length, and this motif of lines following the curvature of the object is one that can be seen on almost all lunulae, including those from Skovs-Hojrup and Cabeceiras de Basto. reflect an element of the twinning of images that is seen in Scandinavian rock art.
Scandinavian solar boats the prow and stern are often very underdeveloped, and only the later examples show elaborate treatment of these features, with bird-head or horse-head terminals. Very often rock art boats are depicted with numerous short strokes, straight or angled, believed to represent oars or oarsmen. Groups of short strokes are also one of the most common motifs on both the border and panel ornament on Irish Iunulae (Pls 11b and 12). The gold boat on the Nebra disc is outlined with short strokes incised on the bronze surface. The boat itself has two concentric lines running along its length, and this motif of lines following the curvature of the object is one that can be seen on almost all lunulae, including those from Skovs-Hojrup and Cabeceiras de Basto. reflect an element of the twinning of images that is seen in Scandinavian rock art.
collar, and this may be interpreted as an expression of the prow and stern of the solar boat. Assuming that they were intended to be worn as upper body ornaments, lunulae may have been worn around the neck with the terminals tied at the back, or possibly may have been suspended on the chest and secured via ties across the back of the neck. Most lunulae have flat spatulate terminals that are expansions of the ends of the original ingot from which the lunula was hammered up. We see them mostly in the same plane as the collar, but this seems to be the result of manipulation of the terminals after discovery. Some early accounts of discovery suggest that the terminals were at right angles to the representations of boats and sun symbols seen on pottery vessels from Los Millares (Guerrero Ayuso 2010). The interior surface of one vessel is incised with a partial representation of a log boat, with two rows of short strokes on either side taken to be the oars or the rowers, just as seen on later Scandinavian rock art. Another shallow dish is decorated with two sun symbols and two stylised boats, reduced to a shallow curved line with rows of short strokes (Pl. 7). Both sun symbols are positioned close to each boat, perhaps an_ early interpretation of the day and night sun. The most significant point in terms of how Iberia, Ireland and Scandinavia relate to one another as regards sun symbols juxtaposed with solar boats (or discs and lunulae) is that the Los Millares depictions are earlier in date than the Scandinavian depictions. Given the accepted spread of Beaker pottery and cultural influences from Iberia throughout Europe, this provides a route whereby these ideas may have been transmitted along the Atlantic route, reaching Ireland perhaps as early as 2400 BC.
collar, and this may be interpreted as an expression of the prow and stern of the solar boat. Assuming that they were intended to be worn as upper body ornaments, lunulae may have been worn around the neck with the terminals tied at the back, or possibly may have been suspended on the chest and secured via ties across the back of the neck. Most lunulae have flat spatulate terminals that are expansions of the ends of the original ingot from which the lunula was hammered up. We see them mostly in the same plane as the collar, but this seems to be the result of manipulation of the terminals after discovery. Some early accounts of discovery suggest that the terminals were at right angles to the representations of boats and sun symbols seen on pottery vessels from Los Millares (Guerrero Ayuso 2010). The interior surface of one vessel is incised with a partial representation of a log boat, with two rows of short strokes on either side taken to be the oars or the rowers, just as seen on later Scandinavian rock art. Another shallow dish is decorated with two sun symbols and two stylised boats, reduced to a shallow curved line with rows of short strokes (Pl. 7). Both sun symbols are positioned close to each boat, perhaps an_ early interpretation of the day and night sun. The most significant point in terms of how Iberia, Ireland and Scandinavia relate to one another as regards sun symbols juxtaposed with solar boats (or discs and lunulae) is that the Los Millares depictions are earlier in date than the Scandinavian depictions. Given the accepted spread of Beaker pottery and cultural influences from Iberia throughout Europe, this provides a route whereby these ideas may have been transmitted along the Atlantic route, reaching Ireland perhaps as early as 2400 BC.

Related papers

New light on an Irish ‘sun-disc’ from the British Museum

PAST , 2018

In a paper published in 1905, Reginald Smith, then Assistant Keeper of the Department of British & Mediaeval Antiquities, drew attention to the similarities between the recently discovered Trundholm sun ‘chariot’ found in 1902, and a disc from the British Museum’s collection. The comparison was quickly forgotten and has rarely – if ever – been repeated, despite the growing fame of the sun discs in the wake of the discovery of the Nebra sky disc in Saxony- Anhalt, Germany. The purpose of this short contribution is to reassess Smith’s suggestion following a century of neglect. To read the paper, please follow the link : http://www.prehistoricsociety.org/files/PAST_90_for_web.pdf

Irish prehistoric goldwork: a provisional analysis

Archeomaterials 7, 1993, 101-113

Axel HartmEinn's analysis of European gold artifacts has stimulated relatively little comment in Ireland other than criticism of his conclusions regarding the sources of Irish Bronze Age and Iron Age gold. A re-evaluation of the pubhshed chemical data supports the correspondence between typological groupings and the chemical groups first suggested by Hartmann. Moreover, the use of such chemical "fingerprinting" both clarifies the chronological status of the main artifact classes and contributes to the discussion of regional groupings of artifact types in Late Bronze Age Ireland. The general aim of correlating artifact types, their chemical composition, and their dates appears to be possible.

Notes on a group of Later Bronze Age artefacts of Irish provenance

The Journal of Irish Archaeology, 2021

Hoards of the Irish Later Bronze Age regularly include different forms of rings and chain links that historically have been identified vaguely as tack components or ‘ornaments’; these occur, too, as stray finds. If, however, they are examined in their wider European context, it becomes clear that some represent components of a hitherto unrecognised class of Irish composite copper-alloy ornament, dating from the tenth–eighth/seventh centuries BC, and exemplified by the Derrane, Co. Roscommon, chain complex.

W. O'Brien Tin, gold and the earliest bronze in Ireland

Ein Schwabe in der Welt, 2023

This paper examines archaeological and metallurgical evidence for the introduction of tin-bronze to Ireland c. 2100–1800 BC. The rapid adoption of the new technology is indicated by a wide circulation of bronze objects from c. 2000 BC, mainly axeheads, daggers and halberds. The new metal combined with an established use of arsenicated copper, obtained in large amounts from Ross Island mine during the Chalcolithic/earliest Bronze Age, c. 2400–1900/1800 BC. The supply of that copper into Britain eventually brought Irish metalworkers into contact with the use of bronze, probably early in the 21st century BC. Copper from Ross Island continued to be produced and recycled into the early centuries of bronze use, with examples here of alloying practice involving ingots, axe-ingots, unfinished and finished axeheads. The chronology and cultural background of this first use of bronze is examined through hoard and grave associations, with relevant radiocarbon and ceramic dating evidence. The sourcing of tin is considered in terms of supply within and outside of Ireland. Of particular relevance is an interest in gold in the insular Beaker culture, which led to the prospecting of streams in south-west England, c. 2200–2000 BC and the discovery of major deposits of alluvial tin. Contacts with Cornwall and north-west France were central to the supply of tin and gold to Ireland in that period.

John Windele's golden legacy-prehistoric gold ornaments from Co. Cork and Co. Waterford

Research in the archives of the Royal Irish Academy, especially in the papers left by John Windele, the Cork antiquarian, has resulted in the identifi cation of many new gold objects of Bronze Age, Iron Age and Viking date, which were previously unrecorded or were unprovenanced. Other archival manuscript and published sources have also been used to gain a more complete understanding of prehistoric gold from Co. Cork and Co. Waterford. As a result, the number of prehistoric objects recorded from Cork has been greatly increased. A previously unknown group of Iron Age gold ornaments and a hoard of Viking gold bracelets have been identifi ed also. The signifi cance of this material is discussed. Notes on a previously unknown hoard and a bronze cauldron, both of Late Bronze Age date, are appended.

Reclaiming Mrs Tyrrell's field: reprovenancing and reconsidering a hoard of gold lunulae from Ballinderry, Co. Kildare

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 122c 1-47, 2022

A hoard containing five gold lunulae of Early Bronze Age date was found in north Co. Kildare in 1859. Although this hoard is better recorded than most others of the period, it has been mistakenly provenanced. This paper examines all relevant archival sources to re-establish the find place, the circumstances of discovery, the dispersal of the hoard, and its reconstitution. Most of the lunulae in this hoard belong to a particular sub-type which is examined and discussed. Fragmentation and manipulation of lunulae during their period of use and prior to deposition are also discussed. An appendix listing 76 extant lunulae from Ireland is also provided, with notes on new or corrected provenances where available.

Aurum et argentum: Robert Day's collection of prehistoric gold and silver

The centenary of his death provides an opportunity to re-examine parts of the collection of archaeological objects collected from all over Ireland by Robert Day. This paper examines the nature and extent of his Bronze Age and Iron Age gold and silver objects. Some new insights on provenance are given. The dispersal of the collection after the 1913 auction is discussed and objects are traced to their present locations where possible.

Related papers