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The Great American Biotic Interchange: Dispersals, Tectonics, Climate, Sea Level and Holding Pens - PubMed

The Great American Biotic Interchange: Dispersals, Tectonics, Climate, Sea Level and Holding Pens

Michael O Woodburne. J Mamm Evol. 2010 Dec.

Abstract

The biotic and geologic dynamics of the Great American Biotic Interchange are reviewed and revised. Information on the Marine Isotope Stage chronology, sea level changes as well as Pliocene and Pleistocene vegetation changes in Central and northern South America add to a discussion of the role of climate in facilitating trans-isthmian exchanges. Trans-isthmian land mammal exchanges during the Pleistocene glacial intervals appear to have been promoted by the development of diverse non-tropical ecologies. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10914-010-9144-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1

Map of Florida, Mexico, and Central America showing fossil localities and other areas discussed in the text. EG = El Golfo, Mexico; ES = El Salvador; G = Guanajuato, Mexico; Gu = Guatemala; H = Honduras; IT = Isthmus of Tehuantepec; L = Leisey Bone Bed, Florida; Ni = Nicaragua; P = Panama; TMVB = Transmexican Volcanic Belt.

Fig. 2
Fig. 2

Reconstruction of geologic setting of Central American volcanic arc region at 6 Ma, after Coates et al. (2004, Fig. 8c). The Central American volcanic arc is still active (open triangles) subsequent to major plate collision between 8.6–7.1 Ma. The presence of numerous islands as well as emergent land in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Colombia sets the stage for the Great American Biotic Interchange well prior to the final closure of the Central American Seaway, perhaps as late as 2.8 Ma. Neritic conditions dominated near island segments prior to a brief bathyal incursion.

Fig. 3
Fig. 3

General chronology of North and South American dispersal episodes, after Cione et al. (2007). Dispersal taxa to North and South America modified according to the text.

Fig. 4
Fig. 4

Chronology of late Miocene through Pleistocene trans-isthmian land mammal exchanges with respect to oxygen isotope stratigraphy. Chronologic framework (Ma, Epoch, GPTS, NALMA, Oxygen isotope stratigraphy) follows Lisiecki and Raymo (2005). Interval of Pliocene Northern Hemisphere glaciation, PCO, and ice build-up, after Mudelsee and Raymo (2005). IRD = ice rafted debris after Bartoli et al. (2005). GP = glacial pulse, interpreted from sea level lowstands of Fig. 7. MIS stages such as 100 (boldface) indicate those in Fig. 7 considered to reflect lowstands due to strong pulses in glaciation. Chronology and list of mammalian taxa as in text. Sigmodontine rodent as per text. Completion of Panamanian Isthmus after Coates et al. (2004), and Bartoli et al (2005).

Fig. 5
Fig. 5

Distribution of Pleistocene landscape types in North and South America. After Webb (: fig. 3). a. Interglacial (present-day) conditions result in rainforest habitats dominating the isthmian region, as well as in the Orinoco and Amazon basins of South America. In this situation, arid or savanna habitats of North America are completely separated from South American counterparts. b. Northern Hemisphere glacial conditions result in the preponderance of savanna and other open landscapes that allowed the extensive population of South America by North American taxa during the Great American Biotic Interchange. Note the many apparently close correlations between multi-taxon dispersal events and glacial pulses (GP) in Fig. 4.

Fig. 6
Fig. 6

Schematic portrayal of NHG climatic transition in the Pliocene after Mudelsee and Raymo (2005). NHG began about 3.6 m.y. with increase in ice volume (solid line); increase was 0.39% (δ18O equivalent). Shaded band shows δ18O fluctuation relative to the ice volume trend. The warm deviation from 3.25–3.0 Ma represents the Pliocene Climate Optimum. M2-MG2 (3.2 m.y.), 110 (2.7 m.y.), 96–100 (2.4–2.5 m.y.) are oxygen isotope cycles showing glacial pulses. Ages are in m.y. rather than Ma to reflect astronomically-based chronology.

Fig. 7
Fig. 7

Chronology of sea level changes during the past 3.2 Ma. After Sosdian and Rosenthal (2009), with MIS units after Lisiecki and Raymo (2005), and vertebrate exchanges added.

Fig. 8
Fig. 8

Location of Neogene floras of Central America. After Graham and Dilcher (: fig. 30).

Fig. 9
Fig. 9

Reconstruction of distribution of lowland Neotropical forest associations at the Last Glacial Maximum (18,000 ybp). After Piperno (: fig. 1). Gray areas indicate land exposed by lowered Pleistocene sea level during maximum glacial advance. Black areas are elevations above 1,500 m. 1. Largely unbroken moist forest, often with a mixture of present-day high-elevation and lowland forest elements. In some areas montane forest elements (Podocarpus, Quercus, Alnus, Ilex) were conspicuous. Annual precipitation less than at present, but sufficient to support a forest. 2. Forest containing drier elements than typical of the present. High-elevation forest elements occur in moister areas of the zone. 3. Mostly undifferentiated thorn woodland, low scrub, and wooded savanna vegetation. Some regions (such as Guatemala) with temperate elements (Juniperus). Areas that presently receive > 2000 mm annual rainfall may still have supported a drier forest, as in 2. River- and stream-side locations supported a forest.

Fig. 10
Fig. 10

Schematic representation of present-day a and last glacial b altitudinal distribution of the zonal vegetation belts in the Colombian Eastern Cordillera. After Andriessen et al. (: fig. 6). H6 in inset map = Hill of Six Lakes, Brazil (Bush et. al. 2004).

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